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PubMed2005

New interpretative styles: progress or contamination?: psychoanalysis and phenomenological psychopathology.

Psychoanalysis has started to recoup, often quite implicitly, a more phenomenological stance, ever since psychoanalysts have started working with borderline and psychotic patients. As many of these patients have commonly been through traumatic experiences, psychoanalysts have been using an approach that questions the role of traditional psychoanalytical interpretation and pays more attention to the patient's inner conscious experiences; this approach is characteristic of a specific form of contemporary psychiatry: phenomenological psychopathology, founded by Karl Jaspers in 1913 and developed into a form of psychotherapy by Ludwig Binswanger, with his Daseinsanalyse. If what we could call a phenomenological 'temptation' has been spreading over psychoanalysis, so too has a psychoanalytical 'temptation' always been present in phenomenological psychopathology. In fact, even though this branch of psychiatry has led us towards a deeper understanding of the characteristics of psychotic being-in-the-world, its therapeutic applications have never been adequately formalised, much less have they evolved into a specific technique or a structured psychotherapeutic approach. Likewise, phenomenological psychotherapy has always held an anaclitic attitude towards psychoanalysis, accepting its procedures but refusing its theoretical basis because it is too close to that of the objectifying natural sciences. Psychoanalytic 'temptation' and phenomenological 'temptation' can thus be considered as two sides of the same coin and outline a trend in psychoanalytic and phenomenological literature which points out the fundamental role of the patient's inner conscious experiences in the treatment of borderline and psychotic patients.

Humans↗
PubMed2006

On teaching psychoanalysis.

Teaching psychoanalysis is no less an art than is the practice of psychoanalysis. As is true of the analytic experience, teaching psychoanalysis involves an effort to create clearances in which fresh forms of thinking and dreaming may emerge, with regard to both psychoanalytic theory and clinical practice. Drawing on his experience of leading two ongoing psychoanalytic seminars, each in its 25th year, the author offers observations concerning (1) teaching analytic texts by reading them aloud, line by line, in the seminar setting, with a focus on how the writer is thinking/writing and on how the reader is altered by the experience of reading; (2) treating clinical case presentations as experiences in collective dreaming in which the seminar members make use of their own waking dreaming to assist the presenter in dreaming aspects of his experience with the patient that the analytic pair has not previously been able to dream; (3) reading poetry and fiction as a way of enhancing the capacity of the seminar members to be aware of and alive to the effects created by the patient's and the analyst's use of language; and (4) learning to overcome what one thought one knew about conducting analytic work, i.e. learning to forget what one has learned.

Dreams↗
PubMed2002

Psychoanalytic peregrinations. II: Psychoanalysis as science and art.

The foundations of psychoanalytic clinical practice involve the role of fantasy, creativity, and imagination as well as the natural science aspects of psychoanalysis. There is a common ground for psychoanalytic technique and we should not in a "politically correct" manner, as is so popular today, abandon the philosophical or Platonic foundationalism that lies at the basis of Freud's psychoanalytic practices. Although it is a "politically incorrect" view, a reasonable degree of objectivity and scientific validity is attainable by the relatively neutral psychoanalyst, using both natural science observations as well as introspection and hermeneutics. Furthermore, since psychoanalysis is fundamentally a creative activity, the roots of creativity require exploration and careful study. Subjective and first person methodologies such as Freud's psychoanalysis and phenomenology cannot be ignored in our search for the core of the self of each of our patients.

Creativity↗
PubMed2003

Psychoanalysis across civilizations: a personal journey.

This journey started in 1950 at Antioch College when I wrote a required Life Aims paper to make a comparative study of East and West in philosophy, religion, art, literature, and the social sciences. In 1977 I went to India on a grant for clinical psychoanalytic research to assess the psychological effects of Westernization on Indians, to ascertain differences in configurations of the self from American patients, and to reexamine psychoanalysis. Realizing I had a tiger by the tail, I had to do just what I had envisaged and completely forgotten about in my Life Aims paper, only now to focus on psychoanalysis. I went to Japan in 1982 for an inter-Asian psychological comparison, which had never been done. Returning home necessitated two more journeys: to understand the encounter of Asian patients with the radically different American cultural/psychological world; and to explore the dialogue psychoanalysts have had with the cultural roots of psychoanalysis in modern Western individualism.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Cognitive sciences and psychoanalysis: a possible convergence.

This paper compares the psychoanalytic description of inner experience with that of the cognitive sciences, which see it in terms of information processing. The two observational standpoints relate to the same mental events. The author considers the possibility of bringing the two descriptions into line with each other and of their mutual translation. The "information" processed in the deep, unconscious, affective, internal experience of a relational context must be identified. This may be possible if a general theory of mental functioning that allows for the data of psychoanalytic observation in terms of semantics, memory, and communication can be formulated. The author examines the theoretical tradition of psychoanalysis, and draws attention to the uncertainties to which Freud's metapsychology gives rise. The energy/drive theory was not only descriptive and clinical in nature, but also had explanatory value, which put psychoanalysis in contact with the other mental sciences of the time. This explanatory value is no longer valid today, and psychoanalytic theories since Freud seem to have disregarded the aspect of "explanation," leaving a theoretical void that has isolated psychoanalysis from the other sciences of the mind. The author contends that object theories may be an appropriate starting point for the exploration of experience in terms of learning processes and of memory traces, and suggests a psychoanalytic cognitivism, coupled with a personal theory to explain the development of the mind.

Cognitive Science↗
PubMed1998

Psychoanalysis and cognitive-evolutionary psychology: an attempt at integration.

The authors argue that the abandonment of the theory of trauma in 1897 was a trauma for Freud himself, who was led to 'despair', and possibly reacted with an overemphasis on inner fantasies and drive discharge. They suggest that today we are facing a second trauma in the history of psychoanalysis that we might call the 'abandonment of drive theory', i.e. the notion that human beings strive not primarily to reduce sexual and aggressive drives but rather seek objects, assign meanings, test previous beliefs and assimilate new schemes. Our task is to recover as Freud was able to do, giving a new impetus to psychoanalysis. The current challenge is, on the one hand, a revision of the psychoanalytic conception of inherited information, and, on the other, a theory of motivation based on converging evidence from cognitive science, ethology, infant research and psychotherapy research. Many clinical models are current in contemporary psychoanalysis. Only as one example among these models, some concepts used in Weiss & Sampson's 'Control-Mastery Theory' will be discussed in light of cognitive science and evolutionary epistemology within the framework of (a) the 1960 classic, 'Plans and Structure of Behavior' by Miller, Galanter and Pribram (b) Edelman's neurobiological theory and (c) Bowlby's attachment theory.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

[History and psychoanalysis: the stakes of history].

Freud's definition of the relationship between hypnosis and psychoanalysis is a political one that even then pointed to the paradigmatical sciences as defined by Kuhn. Nevertheless, the historian who applies to psychoanalysis the technique of symetry elaborated for such sciences, runs up against a set of singularities that risk bringing him to a position of denouncer of a "fake science". We emphasize that, if the historian does not limit himself to the positivist position or to the history of ideas, he will inevitably find himself engaged in the history that he is analyzing, but with the responsibility of his mode of engagement. We propose to define hypnosis and psychoanalysis as fields inhabited by the question of science in the modern sense of the term, and raising the issue of pertinence, as far as they are concerned, of the theoretical experimental model that guided them.

Historiography↗
PubMed1993

[Towards a history of psychoanalysis].

The history of psychoanalytical ideas and practices is not identical to the history of the psychoanalytical movement. The emergence of different schools of psychoanalysis, all claiming direct lineage to Freud, poses a complex historical and epistemological problem that deserves to be carefully studied. The contribution of this article is to propose several methodological markers for defining what constitutes a school of psychoanalysis. It demonstrates the importance of taking into account the clinical matrices favored by each school, the different cultural climates that have received psychoanalysis outside of German speaking countries, and the different ways of reinterpreting Freud's work determined by the combination of the first two factors.

History, 19th Century↗
PubMed1992

Does psychoanalysis heal? A contribution to the theory of psychoanalytic technique.

Beginning with Freud's controversial admonition to psychoanalysts to model themselves on the surgeon who 'dresses the wound, but does not heal it', the author attempts to explore the limits of the therapeutic effect of psychoanalysis. After briefly reviewing the role of projective identification in the transference, and the origin of the analyst's need to be a healer in his anxieties about the strength of his own destructive impulses, he describes certain emotional difficulties that arise in the analyst when he accepts the fact that he can only do analysis. He goes on to suggest that, while psychoanalysis is able to reduce the psychic distance between parts of the patient's mind that have been separated by splitting, this in itself does not provide the patient with a corrective emotional experience, mitigate the severity of his superego, or guide him along the correct developmental path. He further suggests that the analyst's acknowledgement of this limitation--which is equivalent to acknowledging that he can help the patient to grow, but he cannot 'grow' him--is part of a state of mind that the analyst must have to do analysis, and that this state of mind helps to distinguish the practice of psychoanalysis from that of other psychotherapies.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

[Personal recollections of the revival of psychoanalysis in West Germany during the first post-war decades].

National Socialism destroyed the integrity and substance of Psychoanalysis in Germany for a long time to come. The author was among those responsible for the reintroduction of psychoanalytic knowledge and in the organization of psychoanalytic institutions. In this article she tells about the difficulties in reestablishing psychoanalysis in the new Federal Republic, where it met considerable resistance and obstacles. In particular the author gives credit to the significant contribution of German and Austrian emigrants as well as that of psychoanalysis in Anglosaxon countries, especially the London "Schools" of Anna Freud and Melanie Klein.

Germany↗
PubMed2005

[Psychoanalysis in the advanced vocational training of social workers, Berlin 1930-1933 (Verein Jugendheim)].

The Verein Jugendheim in Berlin-Charlottenburg was a holding organisation of welfare institutions and of training facilities for members of the caring professions. In 1928 it founded a Soziales Institute that offered various courses for advanced vocational training. In those courses depth psychology - mainly represented by the Adlerians, least by the Jungians and increasingly by the Freudians - had a prominent place. The role of the Freudian school was supported by the fact that two staff members of the Jugendheim (Hildegard Buder-Schenck, Ursula Graf [Laessig]) started their analytic training at that time. The main teachers of psychoanalysis at the Institute were Siegfried Bernfeld, Edith Jacobson and Steffi Bornstein; notes take by a student at one of Jacobson's seminars are documented in this paper. In general, in the psychoanalytic courses there seems to have been a shift from academic teaching of theory to case oriented supervision. The presence of psychoanalysis in the training program of the Jugendheim indicates the beginning of an institutional rapprochement between pedagogy or social work and psychoanalysis in Berlin, analogous to earlier developments in Vienna. The rise of the Nazis put a stop to this promising, yet hitherto completely unknown, chapter of history.

Germany↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Psychoanalysis in the north-south conflict].

The limitations and possibilities of psychoanalysis in a public health service are presented and discussed based on a report on the public health system in Nicaragua which has been built up consistently in cooperation with psychoanalysis since the fall of the Somoza regime in 1979. The largely successful experiment of integrating psychoanalytic thought into medical training and medical care in a country of the so-called third world has instigated reflections on the present situation in the Federal Republic of Germany. The hypothesis is discussed as to how conflict avoidance, dominant scientific criteria and the extent of political consciousness have contributed to the lacking cooperation between psychoanalysis and medicine.

Curriculum↗
PubMed1989

Psychoanalysis and psychotherapy: an historical perspective.

I have reviewed the historical unfolding of psychoanalytic (or dynamic) psychotherapy as a therapeutic application of psychoanalytic theory directed towards patients not considered appropriate for proper psychoanalysis. I have divided this history into three phases. The first phase that I call the prehistory of dynamic psychotherapy is the period of Freud's development of psychoanalysis as a distinctive therapy for mental illness and its clear differentiation from the varieties of suggestive therapies in vogue at the time. The second phase (from the 40s to the late 70s) is the period of the development of psychoanalytically-based expressive and supportive psychotherapies related to but clearly separate from proper psychoanalysis in terms of specific techniques, goals, and the portions of the psychopathological spectrum against which each is directed. I call it the period of psychoanalytic consensus. The third current phase, from the late 70s to date, I call the period of fragmented consensus. The leading protagonists in the forging of the second phase consensus, brought to its fullest expression in the landmark publications of 1954, have now diverged widely in their perspectives on these issues as expressed in a 1979 Symposium, 25 years after.

Europe↗
PubMed1985

Paradigms and crises in psychoanalysis.

The use of T. S. Kuhn's Structure of Scientific Revolutions as a model for the history of psychoanalysis is addressed. It is shown that his categories have been regularly misapplied in the interest of establishing the scientific status of psychoanalysis, or of proposing a new theoretical structure. It is argued that Kuhn's model may nevertheless be useful for the history of psychoanalysis on condition that its categories are used precisely, and their correspondence to the data is tested rather than assumed.

History, 20th Century↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Technical implications of the post-metapsychological era: toward a developmental psychoanalysis.

At the beginning of the twentieth century Freud and Pavlov made complementary theoretical splits in their observational field. This splitting initiated a dialectical interaction that tended to polarize the Freudian mental world of insight and the psyche against the Pavlovian outer world of learning theories and the soma. The 1950s saw an exaggerated polarization between strict behaviorists and "classical" psychoanalysts. The linkage of ideas of therapeutic action with metapsychology also dates from Freud and is briefly illustrated. The recent substantial repudiation of metapsychology has undone this linkage and paved the way for a post-metapsychological conception of technique and therapeutic action in psychoanalysis. Among a number of paradigms now available, developmental psychoanalysis appears to be an emerging model derived from the epigenetic perspective in psychoanalysis. The paradigm is capable of reintegrating the methodological splits of Freud and Pavlov. Several first-order technical implications are discussed.

Behaviorism↗
PubMed1981

From psychotherapy to psychoanalysis: Frederik van Eeden and Albert Willem van Renterghem.

At the end of the nineteenth century, the unconscious was discovered by various students of the human mind. No agreement existed, however, about its nature--whether it represented the seat of the abnormal, the supranormal, or both. Frederik van Eeden (1860-1932), better known as a writer than as a physician, and Albert Willem van Renterghem (1846-1939), a country doctor, were both attracted by the philosophy of psychic monism and were disappointed by official medical science. They felt that the mind played a greater role in curing and healing than official medicine could acknowledge. Van Eeden, a socialist, moved away from medical science. Fascinated by psychical research, he embraced Spiritualism and joined the Roman Catholic Church. His attitude toward psychoanalysis was ambivalent. Van Renterghem, by contrast, became a respected and well-to-do psychiatrist, and was one of the first Dutch physicians to embrace psychoanalysis. This study of two Dutch psychiatrists shows on the one hand that only gradually the mystically tinged soul of the first dynamic psychiatry became the conscious and unconscious mind of depth psychology, and on the other hand that the reception of psychoanalysis was furthered by the prevailing interest in mysticism.

History, 19th Century↗
PubMed1981

Psychoanalysis in America: 1930-1939.

During the 1930's in the United States the organizational structure for the growth of psychoanalysis was established: new institutes, requirements for membership, standards for training, and professional journals. As psychoanalysis in Europe was being destroyed by the Nazis, many emigree psychoanalysts found refuge here and were integrated into the development of psychoanalysis in America.

History, 20th Century↗
PubMed1995

The specificity of hermeneutics in psychoanalysis: leaps on the path from construction to recollection.

Psychoanalysis is the search for and revelation, through interpretation and construction, of unknown, unconscious implications. But the question is raised: are the meanings being uncovered or are we providing them? This basic realist-idealist contraposition is at the heart of current discussions about the hermeneutic trend in psychoanalysis. Ricoeur's often misrepresented contribution serves as a basis for understanding Freud's method as forming a 'hermeneutic constellation', evolving within a 'moderate', in contrast to a 'radical-idealist' hermeneutic psychoanalysis. Ahumada's recent charge of 'verbal creationism' and Laplanche's re-framing of interpretation between determinism and hermeneutics are discussed in order to specify the more moderate position taken in this paper. It is argued that although they are correct in pointing to potential excesses, both authors misrepresent the hermeneuticist trend as unnecessarily idealistic. A case example from a session illustrates the discussion.

Adult↗