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PubMed1993

A site required for termination of packaging of the phage lambda chromosome.

Lambda chromosomes are cut and packaged from concatemeric DNA by phage enzyme terminase. Terminase initiates DNA packaging by binding at a site called cosB and introducing staggered nicks at an adjacent site, cosN, to generate the left cohesive end of the DNA molecule to be packaged. After DNA packaging terminase recognizes and cuts the terminal cosN, an event that does not require a wild-type cosB. In this work a site, called cosQ, has been identified that is required for termination of DNA packaging. cosQ, defined by mutations in a sequence called R4, is located approximately 30 bp upstream from cosN. The order of sites is cosQ-cosN-cosB. Helper packaging of repressed, tandem prophage chromosomes demonstrated that a cosQ point mutation affects DNA packaging only when placed at the terminal cos site, whereas cosB mutations only affect packaging initiation. In vitro packaging studies confirmed that cosQ mutations do not affect packaging initiation. In vivo studies indicated that cosQ mutations do not affect cutting of initial cos sites but do cause a defect in packaging termination. cosQ mutants accumulated expanded phage heads, indicating that cosQ mutations affect a step that occurs after packaging of a substantial length of phage DNA. These results show that cosQ mutations define a site required for use of cos sites present at the ends of lambda chromosomes undergoing packaging. Available evidence suggests that other viruses, including phages T3 and T7 and the herpesviruses, may ultimately prove to use cosQ-like sites for packaging termination.

Bacteriophage lambda↗

PubMed1996

Quantitative analysis of the packaging capacity of recombinant adeno-associated virus.

Recombinant adeno-associated viruses (AAV) are among the most promising vectors for gene therapy of genetic diseases, including cystic fibrosis (CF). However, because of its small genome size, the capacity of AAV to package a therapeutic gene is limited. The efficiency of packaging the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance Regulator (CFTR) gene into AAV will be an important factor in determining whether recombinant AAV can be developed as a vector for transferring CFTR cDNA to the airway epithelia of patients with CF. Current understanding of the AAV biology suggests that AAV can package a genome slightly larger than the size of a wild-type genome. The precise range of the genome size and the efficiency of packaging have not been defined. Using a series of AAV vectors with progressively-increasing genome size, we were able to analyze quantitatively the packaging efficiency in relation to the vector size and to determine the size limit for packaging. The packaging efficiencies of AAV vectors of variable sizes were determined directly by assaying DNA contents of viral particles, and indirectly by analyzing their efficiency in transfer of a chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) reporter gene into target cells. Our studies showed that the optimal size of AAV vector is between 4.1 and 4.9 kb. Although AAV can package a vector larger than its genome size, up to 5.2 kb, the packaging efficiencies in this large size range were sharply reduced. When the AAV genome size was smaller than 4.1 kb, the packaging efficiency was also suboptimal. In contrast, when the size of the genome was less than half the length of the wild-type genome, two copies of the vector were packaged into each virion, suggesting that the copy number control during packaging is a "head-full" mechanism. Because the length of the minimal cDNA of CFTR is about 4.5 kb, these results suggest it is possible to package the CFTR gene into AAV if the combined length of transcriptional elements and ITRs is kept under 500 bp. The results of this study are important for directing the design of AAV vectors for efficient gene transfer, as well as for a better understanding of the mechanism of AAV genome packaging.

Blotting, Southern↗

PubMed2001

Accuracy and pourability of gypsum preweighed packages.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to determine the amount of gypsum provided by the manufacturers in their preweighed packages and to determine the amount of gypsum dispensed from the packages as a function of the method used. MATERIALS AND METHODS: One hundred twenty unopened packages from 8 manufacturers were weighed. Ten packages from each manufacturer were opened with the contents completely removed by tapping the packages, and the contents were weighed (thorough method). The other 5 packages from each manufacturer were opened, quickly poured, and the contents weighed (quick method). All packages were then slit open on all sides and completely cleaned. The cleaned packages were then weighed. Calculations were made to determine (1) the amount of gypsum that was "supplied" by the manufacturer and (2) the amount removed from the packages using the "quick" and "thorough" methods. The raw data was normalized to percentage of stated weight. A Welch analysis of variance was used to evaluate the heteroscedastic data at a 95% confidence level. Thereafter, a post hoc Student t test was used to determine if the percentages of stated weight for (1) supplied, (2) thorough, and (3) quick were significantly different from 100%. RESULTS: A statistically significant difference was found for the amount of gypsum supplied by the manufacturers (p <.001) and the amount of material removed from the packages via the 2 different methods used (p <.001). Seven of the 8 manufacturers' preweighed packages were remarkably close to their stated weight for amounts "supplied" and the "thorough" method. High standard deviations from the mean were found for the "quick" method of gypsum removal. CONCLUSION: Within the limits of this study, results indicate that the use of a "thorough" method to remove gypsum from preweighed packages was important. Ideally, gypsum supplied in preweighed packages should be weighed initially to ensure an optimal water/powder ratio.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed1992

Role of exonuclease in the specificity of bacteriophage T7 DNA packaging.

During morphogenesis in vivo, bacteriophage T7 packages and cuts to mature size an end-to-end concatemer of its nonpermuted, terminally repetitious, double-stranded, mature DNA. Efficient production (90-100%) and packaging (20-35%) of concatemers has also been demonstrated in extracts of T7-infected cells (in vitro) (Son, M., Hayes, S. J., and Serwer, P. [1988] Virology 162, 38-46). By use of both this procedure of in vitro DNA packaging and in-gel hybridization to packaged DNA fractionated by agarose gel electrophoresis, the specificity of packaging in vitro is found to depend on the presence of T7 gene 6 exonuclease (p6). In the absence of p6 in vitro, no concatemerization is detected and packaging of DNA nonhomologous to T7 DNA (bacteriophage P22 DNA) is as efficient (0.05-1.1%) as the packaging of monomeric T7 DNA. Addition of p6 in vitro both stimulates the concatemerization-packaging of T7 DNA and suppresses the packaging of P22 DNA. The packaging efficiency for concatemeric T7 DNA is 29-611 x higher than that for monomeric T7 DNA. Inhibition of the packaging of P22 DNA by p6 is correlated with the formation of single-stranded P22 DNA ends. These data are explained by the hypothesis that a DNA molecule with a single-stranded end is packaged less efficiently than the same DNA without the single-stranded end. Testing this hypothesis in vivo reveals that both p6 and gene 3 endonuclease contribute to suppressing the packaging of host DNA.

Capsid↗

PubMed1995

Microcomputer statistics packages for biomedical scientists.

1. There are hundreds of commercially available microcomputer statistics packages, ranging from the very cheap and elementary to the very expensive and complex, and from the very general to the very specialized. This review covers only those that appear to be popular with biomedical investigators who deal with fairly small sets of data but may wish to use relatively complex analytical techniques. 2. It is highly desirable, if not essential, that biomedical investigators who use microcomputer statistics packages have access to a spreadsheet program. These provide sample statistics and simple statistical analyses but, more importantly, they are often the best way of entering data into the files of the statistics packages proper. 3. A vital component of any statistics package is its manual. This should be easy to follow, but at the same time it must provide full documentation of, and references to, precisely how the various statistical tests are performed. 4. Some packages are elementary and offer only a narrow range of test procedures (mini-packages). Some are designed to be used as statistical libraries and programming tools for professional statisticians. Between these extremes are the general purpose packages (mid-range, maxi- and supermaxi-packages) that constitute the main body of this review. 5. All the packages reviewed have some shortcomings or flaws. It is argued that the ideal package for biomedical investigators should have the following features: (i) it should provide a wide range of test procedures for analysing continuous, rank-ordered, and categorical data; (ii) the way in which these tests are carried out should be clearly stated in the manual; and (iii) lastly, although not unimportantly, the package should be easy to use. 6. It is recommended that biomedical investigators purchase a package that provides many more statistical routines than they use in their everyday practice. Provided the manual is a good one and the package itself has no serious flaws, this is an excellent stimulus to continuing education in statistical techniques.

Humans↗

PubMed1991

Specificity of retroviral RNA packaging.

Encapsidation of retroviral RNA has been shown to be dependent on specific cis-acting signals, in particular, the packaging region (psi) located near the 5' end of the retroviral genome. In this report, we show that a 683-base avian extended packaging sequence (psi+) derived from Rous sarcoma virus will direct packaging of heterologous hygromycin mRNA into avian virions when present at the 3' end of the transcript in the sense orientation. However, this packaging is not as efficient as the packaging of RNA encoded by a standard avian retroviral vector. A quail cell line containing a Rous sarcoma virus mutant, SE21Q1b, produces virions which will package endogenous cellular mRNAs randomly, roughly in proportion to their intracellular concentrations. We found that viral particles from SE21Q1b retain the capacity to specifically encapsidate hygromycin mRNAs containing the avian psi+. To determine whether packaging of cellular mRNA would occur in other retroviral packaging lines, we assayed virion RNA isolated from the retroviral particles produced by avian and murine packaging lines for the presence of endogenous cellular mRNAs. Endogenous cellular mRNAs were not found randomly packaged into virions produced by any of the packaging lines examined except SE21Q1b. Some specific sequences, however, were found packaged into avian virions. Endogenous retrovirus-related mink cell focus-inducing murine leukemia virus RNAs and 30S viruslike RNAs were found to be efficiently packaged into murine virions even in the presence of RNAs containing all cis-acting retroviral sequences.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Nonreciprocal packaging of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and type 2 RNA: a possible role for the p2 domain of Gag in RNA encapsidation.

The ability of human immunodeficiency virus types 1 (HIV-1) and 2 (HIV-2) to cross-package each other's RNA was investigated by cotransfecting helper virus constructs with vectors derived from both viruses from which the gag and pol sequences had been removed. HIV-1 was able to package both HIV-1 and HIV-2 vector RNA. The unspliced HIV-1 vector RNA was packaged preferentially over spliced RNA; however, unspliced and spliced HIV-2 vector RNA were packaged in proportion to their cytoplasmic concentrations. The HIV-2 helper virus was unable to package the HIV-1 vector RNA, indicating a nonreciprocal RNA packaging relationship between these two lentiviruses. Chimeric proviruses based on HIV-2 were constructed to identify the regions of the HIV-1 Gag protein conferring RNA-packaging specificity for the HIV-1 packaging signal. Two chimeric viruses were constructed in which domains within the HIV-2 gag gene were replaced by the corresponding domains in HIV-1, and the ability of the chimeric proviruses to encapsidate an HIV-1-based vector was studied. Wild-type HIV-2 was unable to package the HIV-1-based vector; however, replacement of the HIV-2 nucleocapsid by that of HIV-1 generated a virus with normal protein processing which could package the HIV-1-based vector. The chimeric viruses retained the ability to package HIV-2 genomic RNA, providing further evidence for a lack of reciprocity in RNA-packaging ability between the HIV-1 and HIV-2 nucleocapsid proteins. Inclusion of the p2 domain of HIV-1 Gag in the chimera significantly enhanced packaging.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed2001

Role for the adenovirus IVa2 protein in packaging of viral DNA.

Although it has been demonstrated that the adenovirus IVa2 protein binds to the packaging domains on the viral chromosome and interacts with the viral L1 52/55-kDa protein, which is required for viral DNA packaging, there has been no direct evidence demonstrating that the IVa2 protein is involved in DNA packaging. To understand in greater detail the DNA packaging mechanisms of adenovirus, we have asked whether DNA packaging is serotype or subgroup specific. We found that Ad7 (subgroup B), Ad12 (subgroup A), and Ad17 (subgroup D) cannot complement the defect of an Ad5 (subgroup C) mutant, pm8001, which does not package its DNA due to a mutation in the L1 52/55-kDa gene. This indicates that the DNA packaging systems of different serotypes cannot interact productively with Ad5 DNA. Based on this, a chimeric virus containing the Ad7 genome except for the inverted terminal repeats and packaging sequence from Ad5 was constructed. This chimeric virus replicates its DNA and synthesizes Ad7 proteins, but it cannot package its DNA in 293 cells or 293 cells expressing the Ad5 L1 52/55-kDa protein. However, this chimeric virus packages its DNA in 293 cells expressing the Ad5 IVa2 protein. These results indicate that the IVa2 protein plays a role in viral DNA packaging and that its function is serotype specific. Since this chimeric virus cannot package its own DNA, but produces all the components for packaging Ad7 DNA, it may be a more suitable helper virus for the growth of Ad7 gutted vectors for gene transfer.

Adenoviridae↗

PubMed2003

Binding of CCAAT displacement protein CDP to adenovirus packaging sequences.

Adenovirus (Ad) type 5 DNA packaging is initiated in a polar fashion from the left end of the genome. The packaging process is dependent upon the cis-acting packaging domain located between nucleotides 194 and 380. Seven A/T-rich repeats have been identified within this domain that direct packaging. A1, A2, A5, and A6 are the most important repeats functionally and share a bipartite sequence motif. Several lines of evidence suggest that there is a limiting trans-acting factor(s) that plays a role in packaging. Two cellular activities that bind to minimal packaging domains in vitro have been previously identified. These binding activities are P complex, an uncharacterized protein(s), and chicken ovalbumin upstream promoter transcription factor (COUP-TF). In this work, we report that a third cellular protein, octamer-1 protein (Oct-1), binds to minimal packaging domains. In vitro binding analyses and in vivo packaging assays were used to examine the relevance of these DNA binding activities to Ad DNA packaging. The results of these experiments reveal that COUP-TF and Oct-1 binding does not play a functional role in Ad packaging, whereas P-complex binding directly correlates with packaging function. We demonstrate that P complex contains the cellular protein CCAAT displacement protein (CDP) and that full-length CDP is found in purified virus particles. In addition to cellular factors, previous evidence indicates that viral factors play a role in the initiation of viral DNA packaging. We propose that CDP, in conjunction with one or more viral proteins, binds to the packaging sequences of Ad to initiate the encapsidation process.

Adenoviruses, Human↗

PubMed2005

Functional interaction of the adenovirus IVa2 protein with adenovirus type 5 packaging sequences.

Adenovirus type 5 (Ad5) DNA packaging is initiated in a polar fashion from the left end of the genome. The packaging process is dependent on the cis-acting packaging domain located between nucleotides 230 and 380. Seven AT-rich repeats that direct packaging have been identified within this domain. A1, A2, A5, and A6 are the most important repeats functionally and share a bipartite sequence motif. Several lines of evidence suggest that there is a limiting trans-acting factor(s) that plays a role in packaging. Both cellular and viral proteins that interact with adenovirus packaging elements in vitro have been identified. In this study, we characterized a group of recombinant viruses that carry site-specific point mutations within a minimal packaging domain. The mutants were analyzed for growth properties in vivo and for the ability to bind cellular and viral proteins in vitro. Our results are consistent with a requirement of the viral IVa2 protein for DNA packaging via a direct interaction with packaging sequences. Our results also indicate that higher-order IVa2-containing complexes that form on adjacent packaging repeats in vitro are the complexes required for the packaging activity of these sites in vivo. Chromatin immunoprecipitation was used to study proteins that bind directly to the packaging sequences. These results demonstrate site-specific interaction of the viral IVa2 and L1 52/55K proteins with the Ad5 packaging domain in vivo. These results confirm and extend those previously reported and provide a framework on which to model the adenovirus assembly process.

Adenoviruses, Human↗

PubMed2003

Identification of probable genomic packaging signal sequence from SARS-CoV genome by bioinformatics analysis.

AIM: To predict the probable genomic packaging signal of SARS-CoV by bioinformatics analysis. The derived packaging signal may be used to design antisense RNA and RNA interfere (RNAi) drugs treating SARS. METHODS: Based on the studies about the genomic packaging signals of MHV and BCoV, especially the information about primary and secondary structures, the putative genomic packaging signal of SARS-CoV were analyzed by using bioinformatic tools. Multi-alignment for the genomic sequences was performed among SARS-CoV, MHV, BCoV, PEDV and HCoV 229E. Secondary structures of RNA sequences were also predicted for the identification of the possible genomic packaging signals. Meanwhile, the N and M proteins of all five viruses were analyzed to study the evolutionary relationship with genomic packaging signals. RESULTS: The putative genomic packaging signal of SARS-CoV locates at the 3' end of ORF1b near that of MHV and BCoV, where is the most variable region of this gene. The RNA secondary structure of SARS-CoV genomic packaging signal is very similar to that of MHV and BCoV. The same result was also obtained in studying the genomic packaging signals of PEDV and HCoV 229E. Further more, the genomic sequence multi-alignment indicated that the locations of packaging signals of SARS-CoV, PEDV, and HCoV overlaped each other. It seems that the mutation rate of packaging signal sequences is much higher than the N protein, while only subtle variations for the M protein. CONCLUSIONS: The probable genomic packaging signal of SARS-CoV is analogous to that of MHV and BCoV, with the corresponding secondary RNA structure locating at the similar region of ORF1b. The positions where genomic packaging signals exist have suffered rounds of mutations, which may influence the primary structures of the N and M proteins consequently.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed2026

Applications of metal-organic frameworks in smart packaging for food freshness indication: a comprehensive review.

Smart packaging is extensively studied for its multifunctional capabilities in antimicrobial activity, preservation, and atmosphere modification. Recently emerged metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) freshness-indicating packaging becomes a key research direction in smart packaging owing to its distinctive functions and physicochemical properties. As multifunctional materials, the unique porous structure and tunable properties of MOFs provide a distinctive approach for developing food packaging applications dedicated to food freshness indication. Existing MOFs-based smart packaging still faces potential safety risks and technical challenges in practical applications, and there remains a lack of integrated discussion that combines synthesis strategies, packaging design, optimization, and safety assessment. This review elaborates on the application of MOFs in freshness-indicating smart packaging, focusing on diverse MOFs synthesis strategies, the formats of smart packaging, types of indicator signals, and qualitative/quantitative analytical methods. It also delves into the methodology concepts of MOFs-based smart packaging and evaluates MOFs safety in food packaging by addressing potential risks. Studies show that MOFs-based smart packaging achieves qualitative and semi-quantitative analysis of food freshness through multiple signal modalities such as visible color change, fluorescence, and photothermal effects. This review emphasizes that safe MOFs design is critically important and should comply with the overall migration limit of <10 mg/dm2 specified in Regulation (EC) No 1935/2004, lanthanide element limit of <0.05 mg/kg, and FDA threshold of 1.5 μg/person/day. Comprehensive safety assessment and intelligent sensing platforms will constitute pivotal directions for advancing MOFs-based smart packaging toward practical application.

Food Packaging↗

PubMed2005

Interaction of the adenovirus major core protein precursor, pVII, with the viral DNA packaging machinery.

Adenovirus is one of the well-studied double-stranded DNA viruses. However, the mechanisms of its DNA packaging and virion assembly are still not fully understood. One of the unique features of adenovirus is that the unpackaged viral DNA is associated with core protein pVII. Packaging of viral DNA bound with proteins has not been reported from other viruses. To characterize how viral DNA bound with protein pVII is packaged, we performed experiments to see if protein pVII interacts with the known DNA packaging proteins or the packaging sequence. Our results demonstrated that protein pVII interacted with the viral IVa2 and L1 52/55 kDa proteins, which are the known viral DNA packaging proteins. Furthermore, our protein-DNA binding experiments demonstrated that the IVa2 protein mediates the specific interaction with the packaging sequence, whereas protein pVII and the L1 52/55 kDa protein bind to DNA non-specifically. Although the non-specific binding of protein pVII and the L1 52/55 kDa protein do not appear to affect the specific binding of the IVa2 protein to the packaging sequence, and the specific binding of the IVa2 protein does not appear to block the bindings of protein pVII and the L1 52/55 kDa protein to the packaging sequence, the possibility of a cooperative binding among the IVa2 protein, the L1 52/55 kDa protein and protein pVII on the packaging sequence needs to be further determined. In summary, the results indicate that the assembly of the DNA packaging initiation complex may be mediated by the specific interaction of the IVa2 protein with the packaging sequence and other viral proteins, such as protein pVII and the L1 52/55 kDa protein.

Adenoviruses, Human↗

PubMed2006

Mechanistic coupling of bacteriophage T4 DNA packaging to components of the replication-dependent late transcription machinery.

Regulation of the terminal stage of viral DNA development, DNA packaging, is poorly understood. A new phage T4 in vitro DNA packaging assay employed purified proheads, terminase (gp17 + gp16), and ATP to encapsidate DNA resistant to nuclease. Mature phage T4 DNA and linearized plasmid DNAs containing or lacking a cloned T4 gene were packaged with high (approximately 10%) efficiency. Supercoiled, relaxed covalently closed, and nicked circular plasmid DNAs were packaged inefficiently, if at all, by these components. However, efficient packaging is achieved for nicked circular plasmid DNA, but not covalently closed plasmid DNA, upon addition to packaging mixtures of the purified T4 late transcription-replication machinery proteins: gp45 (sliding clamp), gp44/gp62 (clamp loader complex), gp55 (late sigma-factor), and gp33 (transcriptional co-activator). The small terminase subunit (gp16) is inhibitory for packaging linear DNAs, but enhances the transcription-replication protein packaging of nicked plasmid DNA. Taken together with genetic and biochemical evidence of a requirement for gp55 for concatemer packaging to assemble active wild-type phage particles (1), the plasmid packaging results show that initiation of phage T4 packaging on "endless" concatemeric DNA in vivo by terminase depends upon interaction with the DNA loaded gp45 coupled late transcription-replication machinery. The results suggest a close mechanistic connection in vivo between DNA packaging and developmentally concurrent replication-dependent late transcription.

Bacteriophage T4↗

PubMed2003

Use of double packaging and antioxidant combinations to improve color, lipid oxidation, and volatiles of irradiated raw and cooked turkey breast patties.

The effects of antioxidants and double packaging combinations on color, lipid oxidation, and volatiles production in irradiated raw and cooked turkey breast were determined. Ground meat was treated with antioxidants (none, sesamol + alpha-tocopherol, or gallate + alpha-tocopherol), and patties were prepared. The patties were packaged under vacuum, packaged aerobically, or double packaged (vacuum for 7 d then aerobic for 3 d) and electron beam irradiated at 3 kGy. Color, 2-thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS), and volatile profiles of the samples were determined at 0 and 10 d and after cooking. Irradiated vacuum-packaged patties had great amounts of sulfur volatiles (dimethyl sulfide and dimethyl disulfide) and increased red color during refrigerated storage and after cooking compared with the nonirradiated control. Irradiated aerobically packaged meat had accelerated lipid oxidation and aldehyde production at 10 d and after cooking. Gallate + alpha-tocopherol alone with double packaging was effective in reducing the red color of irradiated meat at 10 d and after cooking. Considerable amounts of off-odor volatiles were reduced by double packaging and antioxidant treatment. Sulfur volatiles were evaporated during the aerobic period of double packaging, and lipid oxidation was prevented by the antioxidants and vacuum condition of double packaging. These beneficial effects of double packaging and antioxidants were more critical in irradiated cooked meat. Therefore, the combined use of antioxidants and double packaging would be a useful method to control the oxidative quality changes of irradiated raw and cooked turkey breast.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Double-packaging is effective in reducing lipid oxidation and off-odor volatiles of irradiated raw turkey meat.

The effects of double packaging on lipid oxidation, color, and volatile production were determined to establish a modified packaging method to improve quality changes in irradiated raw turkey meat. Sliced raw turkey breast and thigh meats were aerobically, vacuum- or double (vacuum and aerobic)-packaged, electron beam irradiated at 2.5 kGy, and then stored under refrigerated temperature. For the double-packaged samples, the outer vacuum bags were removed after 5, 7, or 9 d of refrigerated storage. 2-Thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) values, volatile compounds, and color values of the samples were determined after 10 d of storage. Irradiation and aerobic packaging promoted production of aldehydes (propanal and hexanal) related to lipid oxidation in turkey breast and thigh meats. Vacuum-packaged irradiated samples retained S-volatile compounds (methanethiol, dimethyl sulfide, dimethyl disulfide, and dimethyl trisulfide), mainly responsible for the irradiation off-odor, during storage. Exposure of double-packaged irradiated turkey meats to aerobic conditions by removing outer vacuum bags a few days before the test was effective in controlling both lipid oxidation-dependent (aldehydes) and radiolytic off-odor (S-compounds) volatiles. The a* values of raw turkey breast and thigh meats increased by irradiation regardless of packaging conditions. The a* value of double-packaged meats was lower than that of the vacuum-packaged meats but was not significant. Thus, the use of double-packaging alone was not enough to reduce the pink color of irradiated raw turkey meat. When lipid oxidation and irradiation off-odor should be minimized without any additional additives, however, double packaging is an excellent method to be used for turkey meats.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Effect of package weight on the total amount of die stone used annually in a dental school.

PURPOSE: This study compared the total amount of Type IV dental stone (die stone) used annually by dental students when they were supplied with either 70-g or 140-g preweighed packages of die stone. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In September 1994, all the bulk containers of die stone were removed from the student dental clinic and laboratories and replaced by 70-g preweighed packages of die stone (Silky-Rock; Whip Mix, Louisville, KY). At the end of August 1998, all 70-g packages of die stone were removed from the student dental clinic and laboratories. The average annual number of 70-g packages of preweighed die stone used by the students from 1994 to 1998 was calculated. From September 1998 to the end of August 1999, only 140-g preweighed packages of die stone (Silky-Rock) were supplied to the students. The number of the 140-g packages of preweighed die stone and total weight used by students during this period were calculated and compared with the average annual number of 70-g preweighed packages of die stone used during the 1994-1998 period. RESULTS: From September 1994 to August 1998, the students used an annual average of 4060 +/- SD 250 of the 70-g packages (284.2 +/- 17.5 kg per annum). From September 1998 to August 1999, the students used 3360 of the 140-g packages (470.4 kg). CONCLUSIONS: Although the students used in total 700 fewer of the 140-g die stone packages per annum than the annual average number of 70-g packages, they used 186.2 kg (65.5%) more die stone when supplied with the 140-g packages.

Calcium Sulfate↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Time savings associated with dispensing unit-of-use packages.

OBJECTIVES: To determine how much time can be saved with the use of unit-of-use packaging in a community pharmacy, the distribution of work between the pharmacist and the pharmacy technician when unit-of-use packaging is used, and the number of errors that occur when either unit-of-use or bulk packaging is used in dispensing prescriptions. DESIGN: A simulation comparing count-and-pour dispensing with unit-of-use package dispensing. SETTING: An independent community pharmacy. PARTICIPANTS: Two teams, each composed of one pharmacist and one pharmacy technician. INTERVENTION: Each team prepared 50 typical prescription orders, once using unit-of-use packaging and once by transferring medication from a bulk container. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Time needed to dispense 50 prescriptions, dispensing activities performed by technicians and pharmacists, and number of dispensing errors. RESULTS: The time saved with unit-of-use packaging compared with count-and-pour dispensing was 46.5 minutes per 100 prescriptions, which represents an average time savings of more than 27 seconds per prescrition. In the bulk package dispensing simulation, the pharmacists assisted in retrieving and counting medication for 26% of the prescriptions. This percentage dropped to 4% when unit-of-use packaging was used because the technicians dispensed prescriptions at a rate that occupied the pharmacist with verifying the prescription orders and dispensed products. Each team committed two counting errors when executing the bulk package trial and no errors when using unit-of-use packaging. CONCLUSION: Unit-of-use packaging can reduce the time needed for and increase the efficiency of pharmacists' dispensing activities. Unit-of-use packaging may also reduce the number of counting errors.

Drug Packaging↗