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PubMed1983

N1 latency following acute pure-tone trauma.

The latency of the N1 component of tone burst evoked compound action potentials was examined in chinchilla following acute pure-tone trauma. At and below the trauma frequency (4 kHz) the N1 latency at threshold generally increased, while above the trauma frequency it decreased; tonotopically paralleling pitch shifts observed in humans following pure-tone trauma. When N1 latency at threshold is considered across animals as a linear function of dB SPL at threshold, after trauma a high degree of linear correlation was found at 6 and 8 kHz, while a low degree of linear correlation was found at 4 kHz. An interpretation and the significance of the data are discussed.

Animals↗
PubMed1983

Central auditory processing. I. Ear dominance--a perceptual or an attentional asymmetry?

The phenomenon of ear dominance for pitch described by Efron and Yund has been attributed by them to an asymmetry of sensory origin in the binaural integration of dichotic tone pairs. An explanation of this phenomenon in terms of an attentional bias is rejected on the basis of two experiments where the possibility of such bias was excluded. These and other experiments indicate that a simple explanation of this ear dominance in terms of a hemispheric specialization in the processing of tonal stimuli also must be rejected.

Attention↗
PubMed1999

Perceptual and linguistic interactions in speeded classification: tests of the semantic coding hypothesis.

We tested the semantic coding hypothesis, which states that cross-modal interactions observed in speeded classification tasks arise after perceptual information is recoded into an abstract format common to perceptual and linguistic systems. Using a speeded classification task, we first confirmed the presence of congruence interactions between auditory pitch and visual lightness and observed Garner-type interference with nonlinguistic (perceptual) stimuli (low-frequency and high-frequency tones, black and white squares). Subsequently, we found that modifying the visual stimuli by (a) making them lexical (related words) or (b) reducing their compactness or figural 'goodness' altered congruence effects and Garner interference. The results are consistent with the semantic coding hypothesis, but only in part, and suggest the need for additional assumptions regarding the role of perceptual organization in cross-modal dimensional interactions.

Female↗
PubMed2005

Quantifying tone deafness in the general population.

Many people reach adulthood without acquiring significant music performance skills (singing or instrumental playing). A substantial proportion of these adults consider that this has come about because they are "not musical." Some of these people may be "true" congenital amusics, characterized by specific and substantial anomalies in the processing of musical pitch and rhythm sequences, while at the same time displaying normal processing of speech and language. It is likely, however, that many adults who believe that they are unmusical are neurologically normal. We could call these adults "false" amusics. Acquisition of musical competence has multiple personal, social, and environmental precursors. Deficiencies in these areas may lead to lack of musical achievement, despite the fact that an individual possesses the necessary underlying capacities. Adults may therefore self-define as "unmusical" or "tone-deaf" for reasons unconnected to any underlying anomaly. This paper reports on two linked research studies. The first is an interview study with adults defining themselves as tone-deaf or unmusical. The interview schedule was designed to discover what criteria are being used in their self-definitions. Preliminary results suggest that performance criteria (e.g., judging oneself as unable to sing) play a major role, even for people who claim and demonstrate no perceptual deficits. The second study reports progress on the development of new subtests for a revised version of the Montreal Battery for the Evaluation of Amusia (MBEA, Peretz et al., 2003). This currently contains six tests that allow for the assessment of melodic perception: contour, intervals, scale, rhythm, meter, and recognition memory. The MBEA does not assess two capacities that are generally accepted as central to normal music cognition: harmony and emotion. The development and norming of the emotion subtest will be described. When completed, the MBEA(R) will form a robust screening device for use with the general population, whose purpose is to discriminate "true" from "false" amusics. Such discrimination is essential to achieve a better understanding of the variety of causes of low musical achievement.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed1995

Cochlear precursors of neural pitch and loudness codes.

It has been believed by most auditory scientists for over a century that the place of maximum vibration in the cochlea provides the main pitch code. Recently, we have obtained experimental evidence showing that this is quite unlikely, because the maximum of cochlear excitation changes its location with sound intensity, moving over the useful sound intensity range toward the cochlear base by a distance equivalent to more than one octave, whereas the pitch remains almost constant. In the presence of outer hair cell damage, the maximum is shifted toward the base by a similar distance, whereas the pitch is hardly affected. Of interest, the location of the apical cutoff of excitation is practically unaffected by sound intensity or cochlear damage. For any given sound frequency, the shift of the maximum with sound intensity precludes any single cochlear location from coding for loudness over the entire useful intensity range. The code is very likely provided by the maximum, which changes its location with the intensity, or by the whole cochlear excitation area. Of significance in this respect is our determination that the growth of the output of the whole auditory nerve parallels the growth of the excitation area. These findings may be useful for the coding of sound in cochlear implants, as well as for hearing aid dynamics.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed2003

Contribution of somesthetic information to the perception of body orientation in the pitch dimension.

This study investigated the contribution of otolithic and somesthetic inputs in the perception of body orientation when pitching at very slow velocities. In Experiment 1, the subjects' task was to indicate their subjective postural vertical, in two different conditions of body restriction, starting from different angles of body tilt. In the "strapped" condition, subjects were attached onto a platform by means of large straps. In the "body cast" condition, subjects were completely immobilized in a depressurized system, which attenuates gravity-based somesthetic cues. Results showed that the condition of body restriction and the initial tilt largely influenced the subjective postural vertical. In Experiment 2, subjects were displaced from a vertical position and had to detect the direction of body tilts. Results showed that the threshold for the perception of body tilt was higher when subjects were immobilized in the body cast and when they were tilted backward. Experiment 3 replicated the same protocol from a supine starting position. Compared to results of Experiment 2, the threshold for the perception of body tilt decreased significantly. Overall, these data suggested that gravity-based somesthetic cues are more informative than otolithic cues for the perception of a quasi-static body orientation.

Adult↗
PubMed1986

Magnitude estimation and the "paradoxical" loudness of tinnitus.

Ten patients with sensorineural hearing loss and tinnitus matched external tones to the tinnitus pitch. These matches were followed by magnitude estimates to measure the loudness function of tones at 1 kHz at the presumed tinnitus frequency (i.e., at the average frequency matching the pitch of the tinnitus), magnitude estimates of the tinnitus itself, and loudness matches of external tones to the tinnitus. The slope of the loudness function at 1 kHz is substantially smaller than the slope at the presumed tinnitus frequency. Most importantly, the magnitude estimates of the tinnitus coupled with intensity matches to the tinnitus provide coordinates that typically lie near the loudness function of the external tone used in the intensity match. Because the slope of the loudness function is much greater at the tinnitus frequency than at 1 kHz, the magnitude estimate of tinnitus loudness corresponds to a lower sensation level at that frequency than at 1 kHz. This finding favors the conclusion that rapid changes in loudness of external tones at the tinnitus frequency account for the "paradoxical" loudness of the tinnitus. The conclusion is independent of any mathematical description of the loudness function.

Hearing Loss, Sensorineural↗
PubMed1984

Equal-loudness contours using subjective tinnitus as the standard.

For six patients with sensorineural hearing loss and tinnitus, we determined the level of comparison tones (Co) of various frequencies that were judged to be as loud as the tinnitus (i.e., an equal-loudness contour was obtained). To prevent interactions of the Co and the tinnitus, the Co was chosen to lie outside of the region of pitch matches made to the tinnitus. If the loudness of the tinnitus is assumed to be fixed at L sones, then the level, P, of the Co is nearly predicted from the equation, L = K(P - p0).6 where p0 is the absolute threshold of the Co used for the match. The rate of increase of loudness therefore depends on the threshold of the Co: For constant loudness, the larger the absolute threshold of the Co, the smaller is its sensation level. For persons with high-frequency sensorineural hearing loss, therefore, the sensation level of the Co is always smaller in the region of loss than in the normal region. It follows that the sensation level of the Co does not reflect the loudness of the tinnitus; thus, tinnitus cannot be viewed as a weak tone simply because it is matched to a tone at low sensation level.

Audiometry, Pure-Tone↗
PubMed2003

Coding of sounds in the auditory system and its relevance to signal processing and coding in cochlear implants.

OBJECTIVE: To review how the properties of sounds are "coded" in the normal auditory system and to discuss the extent to which cochlear implants can and do represent these codes. DATA SOURCES: Data are taken from published studies of the response of the cochlea and auditory nerve to simple and complex stimuli, in both the normal and the electrically stimulated ear. REVIEW CONTENT: The review describes: 1) the coding in the normal auditory system of overall level (which partly determines perceived loudness), spectral shape (which partly determines perceived timbre and the identity of speech sounds), periodicity (which partly determines pitch), and sound location; 2) the role of the active mechanism in the cochlea, and particularly the fast-acting compression associated with that mechanism; 3) the neural response patterns evoked by cochlear implants; and 4) how the response patterns evoked by implants differ from those observed in the normal auditory system in response to sound. A series of specific issues is then discussed, including: 1) how to compensate for the loss of cochlear compression; 2) the effective number of independent channels in a normal ear and in cochlear implantees; 3) the importance of independence of responses across neurons; 4) the stochastic nature of normal neural responses; 5) the possible role of across-channel coincidence detection; and 6) potential benefits of binaural implantation. CONCLUSIONS: Current cochlear implants do not adequately reproduce several aspects of the neural coding of sound in the normal auditory system. Improved electrode arrays and coding systems may lead to improved coding and, it is hoped, to better performance.

Cochlea↗
PubMed1982

Auditory distortion.

The auditory system responds to pulsatile energy flow from the environment. Compression and rarefaction of gaseous molecular mass is transduced into electromechanical forms, in order to produce an effect at the cortical level. For energy input to have consistent meaning, transduction must preserve information coded within the pattern of energy flow. Distortion, or alteration of the original form, occurs in many ways throughout the chain of generation/transmission/reception/interpretation. Parameters of energy flow are discussed, and distortion of each parameter is presented in a context which permits the development of a distortion-based analysis of common clinical problems in otolaryngology.

Acoustics↗
PubMed1981

Tone-versus FM--induced patterns of excitation and suppression in the 14-C-2-deoxyglucose labeled auditory "cortex" of the guinea fowl.

The primary auditory "cortex" field L, of the Guinea fowl is a three layer tonotopically organized structure. Isofrequency planes as shown with the 2-deoxyglucose (2DG) method cut across these layers and with their second dimension extend in rostro-caudal direction. The input layer L2 exhibits "spontaneous" labeling due to high spontaneous activity of input terminals and units throughout the hearing range. The labeling is stronger locally along a rostro-caudal isofrequency contour of L2 after tone or narrow band FM stimulation. With tone stimuli the layers L1 and L3 are labeled within an isofrequency plane except for the rostral half of the field whereas frequency modulated tones do label these two layers throughout the corresponding isofrequency plane. FM stimuli in addition lead to a reduction of spontaneous labeling in frequency planes adjacent to those which are covered by the stimuli. Since these effects correlate with known inhibitory effects of such stimuli it is argued that the 2 DG method can identify the suppression of activity of neurons in suitable structures.

Animals↗
PubMed1980

Implications for phonetic symbolism: the relationship between pure tones and geometric figures.

In studies of phonetic symbolism, the most commonly cited attribute of speech relevant to the phenomenon has been frequency. The present study was conducted in order to examine the relationship between pure tone frequencies and geometric figures. A pure tone oscillator was constructed which produced tones in a continuous sweep from 4-12,250 Hz. Six geometric shapes were employed and varied along three binary dimensions (size, complexity, and density) producing a total of 48 stimulus figures. Twelve male and twelve female subjects adjusted pure tone frequencies until they "best fit" the visually presented geometric figure in a complete within-subject, block-randomization design of 48 trials. There was consistency in the assignment of pure tone frequencies to the dimensions of the geometric figures. Round figures (circles and ellipses) generally received lower frequency assignments than other figures, and the shape by size interaction was also found to be statistically significant. The results are interpreted in light of recent research in psycholinguistics and in particular to the hypothesis of a "universal phonetic symbolism".

Female↗
PubMed1996

[Direct loudness scaling in diagnosis of tinnitus. A contribution to loudness perception in tinnitus].

We used free-field audiometry to investigate the loudness perception of unilateral high-frequency tinnitus in 16 "normal-hearing" ears by comparing the results with loudness scaling in 20 normally hearing ears without any tinnitus. Narrow-band noise signals at four different frequencies from 500 to 4000 Hz were employed. The parameters used included the slope m of the loudness function and the level Lm (corresponding to the loudness perception of "medium loud") as well as the suitability of fit (delta FIT). The results showed that in subjects with tinnitus the slope of the mean loudness level tended to decrease at 4000 Hz. The dynamic range of ears affected by tinnitus was restricted for stimulation with noise signals at 1000, 2000 and 4000 Hz. The parameters of delta FIT fitted to the loudness functions were increased in the whole frequency range of 500-4000 Hz, indicating that loudness scaling was not as reliable for normal hearing ears when influenced by tinnitus. Tinnitus masking was based on the finding that external sound could change tinnitus loudness. Our results showed that the loudness perception of external sound was influenced by tinnitus. This change in loudness perception seemed to be not restricted to the frequency range of the tinnitus.

Adult↗
PubMed1981

Plasticity of binaural interaction in the cat inferior colliculus.

Responses of single neurones in the inferior colliculus (IC) to acoustic interaural intensity difference (IID) were examined in normal, adult cats and in cats that had been reared for 3--4 months, either from birth or as adults, with unilateral ligation of the external meatus. There were significantly fewer units displaying IID sensitivity in either of the ligated groups than there were in the normal group. The loss of IID sensitivity in the ligated animals reflected a diminished inhibitory input from the non-ligated ear.

Aging↗
PubMed1984

The augmenting/reducing phenomenon in the auditory evoked potential.

Auditory evoked potentials (AEPs) were recorded to 4 intensities of tones (70, 80, 90, 100 dB) in 22 normal subjects. Augmenting (generally increasing amplitude with increasing stimulus intensity) and reducing (a levelling off or decrease in amplitude with increasing stimulus intensity) were found to occur at both central (Cz, C3, C4) and temporal (T3, T4) placements, regardless of which peak or peak-through measure was examined. There were generally low levels of agreement between central amplitude/intensity response patterns and those at temporal placements. An individual was seldom classified the same way (i.e. augmenter or reducer) when the augmenting or reducing was assessed using different AEP measures. These results suggest that in the AEP the suitability of the conventional definition and the validity of certain interpretations of augmenting/reducing are questionable.

Adult↗
PubMed1984

Baclofen reduces tone-evoked activity of cochlear nucleus neurons.

Recent evidence suggests that an excitant amino acid may be a neurotransmitter at acoustic nerve synapses in cochlear nucleus (CN). Release of excitant amino acids is reportedly reduced by baclofen, a lipophilic GABA-mimetic used to treat the spasticity of multiple sclerosis and spinal injury. Microiontophoresis of (-)baclofen suppressed spontaneous and tone-evoked activity in CN neurons. GABA inhibited the responses of most neurons responsive to (-)baclofen. However, iontophoresis of these two substances onto the same CN neuron resulted in dramatic differences in time course to maximum effect and to recovery. Onset and offset of (-)baclofen-induced firing reduction were gradual at all doses (currents), but even the highest doses rarely caused total suppression of firing. Inhibition of firing by GABA was abrupt, and total suppression was frequently observed over the range of doses used. GABA desensitization (fading) commonly occurred while the (-)baclofen response never faded. The same CN neurons were also suppressed by D-alpha-aminoadipate, which blocks certain excitatory amino acid receptors, while the GABA antagonist bicuculline had no effect on the (-)baclofen response. These findings support the hypothesis that an excitant amino acid may be a transmitter at acoustic nerve synapses in CN.

2-Aminoadipic Acid↗
PubMed1985

Characteristics of tone-pip response patterns in relationship to spontaneous rate in cat auditory nerve fibers.

The responses of single auditory nerve (AN) fibers in the cat were recorded in response to 25 ms tone pips. Peristimulus time histograms (PSTH) of discharge patterns recorded from fibers with high spontaneous rates (high SRs), show that the discharge rate rapidly adapts to a much lower steady-state level over a 15 ms period with shorter times for units with best frequencies (CFs) greater than 5 kHz. The PSTHs of auditory nerve fibers with low SRs do not show this pattern of rapid adaptation. Differences between the high and low SR populations include higher thresholds, better tuning, and longer latency in the low SR population. The peak-to-steady-state discharge ratio is an increasing function of SR and CF; it varies from 1.0 for fibers with SR = 0 to over 8 for fibers with high SRs and CFs near 10 kHz. This ratio increases with increasing stimulus intensity and stimulus recovery time. The high SR population shows a number of responses to transients which are weak or absent in the low SR population. Increasing the recovery time shortened the latency of both high and low SR AN fibers by as much as 1 ms. A number of other response properties of AN fibers are also reported that are important when interpreting the responses of cochlear nucleus neurons to tone pips.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed1986

Steady-state evoked responses to sinusoidally amplitude-modulated sounds recorded in man.

Steady-state potentials evoked in response to binaural, sinusoidally amplitude-modulated (AM) pure tones and broadband noise signals were recorded differentially from position F4 and the ipsilateral mastoid on the human scalp. The responses elicited by the AM stimuli were approximately periodic waveforms whose energy was predominantly at the modulation frequency of the stimulus. The magnitude of responses was between 0.1 and 4 microV for modulation frequencies between 2 and 400 Hz imposed on a 1-kHz carrier signal. The magnitude of the responses increased linearly with log modulation depth for low (4 Hz) and high (80 Hz) modulation rates. The response magnitude also increased linearly with the mean intensity of the sound for intensities up to 60 dB above the subject's pure tone threshold; at higher levels the response saturated. The relationship between response magnitude and modulation frequency (the modulation transfer function) was a lowpass function for both pure tone and broadband noise carrier signals. The modulation transfer functions were similar to those obtained from human psychophysical measurements where spectral cues are either unavailable or not used by the subject. The responses also contained a significant component at the second harmonic of the modulation frequency. The magnitude of this component was greatest at modulation rates between 5 and 20 Hz. The responses elicited by ipsilateral and contralateral monaural stimulation were approximately equal in magnitude, and binaural stimulation produced a potential 30% greater than the individual monaural responses. It is suggested that the evoked response represents the entrained neural activity to temporal amplitude fluctuations, and reflects the psychophysically measured performance of the auditory system for the detection and analysis of amplitude modulation.

Adult↗