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PubMed1995

Scrolled and rapid serial visual presentation texts are read at similar rates by the visually impaired.

Visually impaired observers read dynamically displayed text faster than text displayed in a normal page view. The goal of this study was to compare reading rates from two dynamic-presentation methods that have been proposed to facilitate reading from computer-based displays. Prior research has shown that both normally sighted and low-vision observers read text displayed to the same location, one word at a time [known as rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP)], faster than a page of text. A similar comparison with text scrolled continuously across the screen also shows faster reading for low-vision patients, but the relative change from a standard page view is substantially less (15% faster for the scroll display versus 80% faster for RSVP). In this study we directly compared these techniques. For those with normal vision, reading from the RSVP display was 1.3 times faster than reading from the scroll display [t(9) = 3.32, P = 0.009]. Although the difference in reading rates for the visually impaired group did not reach statistical significance, as a group they read 13% slower from the RSVP than from the scroll display.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Etiology of covariation between reading and mathematics performance: a twin study.

The etiology of the observed relationship between reading and mathematics performance was examined by analyzing data from samples of same-sex twin pairs tested in the Colorado Learning Disabilities Research Center. Bivariate phenotypic and genetic structural equation models were fitted to data from 526 twin pairs selected for reading deficits (290 identical and 236 same-sex fraternal) and 355 control pairs (220 identical and 135 same-sex fraternal). Subtests of the Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT; Reading Recognition, Reading Comprehension, and Spelling) were used as measures of reading performance, and scores from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) or Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R) Arithmetic subtest, the Wide Range Achievement Test Arithmetic subtest, and the PIAT Math subtest were used as indices for mathematics performance. The results of these confirmatory factor analyses indicate that genetic and environmental covariances between reading and math latent factors do not differ significantly for twin pairs in the proband and control groups. Estimates of heritability for reading performance in the proband and control samples were 0.81 and 0.69, respectively, and those for math performance were 0.88 and 0.67, respectively. Moreover, genetic influences accounted for 83% of the covariation between the reading and math factors in the proband group and for 58% of the covariation between these two latent variables in the control group; in contrast, shared environmental influences did not contribute significantly to the relationship between the reading and math latent factors nor to their independent variation.

Achievement↗

PubMed2005

Attention and reading skills.

Attention plays a critical role in information processing. Its adequate functioning is required for correct development of complex cognitive abilities and regular scholastic progress. Children with attention deficits often have difficulties in reading, writing, and arithmetic. The present study investigated interactions among reading skills, overall scholastic performance as rated by teachers, and components of attention: visual reaction time, simple immediate span of attention, and selectivity. The sample was 98 students in the first and second years of public junior high school (age range 11-14 years, M = 12.6, SD = 1.2), i.e., with expected already well-established reading. Reading was evaluated using Comprehension, Accuracy, and Speed tests. Overall scholastic performance was obtained by means of teachers' ratings. Simple Reaction Time, Digit Span, and Color-Word Interference, included in a multitask computerized test, assessed attention. Analysis confirmed the hypothesis that the reading skills are strongly predictive of the Scholastic Assessment rated by the teachers. High scholastic ratings were correlated with Reading Speed and Accuracy rather than Reading Comprehension. Poor readers showed worse performances on the Digit Span test which measures simple immediate span of attention. Good and poor readers obtained a similar score on the Color-Word Interference task. This observation seems to contrast with the more common interpretation of this effect, suggesting that reading is an automatic process and, therefore, the semantic dimension overcomes the controlled perceptual one. According to other studies, an alternative explanation is suggested. In conclusion, present results confirm the hypothesis of a strong link among reading speed and accuracy, scholastic assessment as rated by teachers, simple immediate span of attention, and visual reaction time.

Achievement↗

PubMed1975

Measures of visual-auditory integration and their relations to reading achievement in early grades.

Several tests of visual-auditory integration were designed to represent the various tasks that have been found to correlate with reading achievement in the early grades. The battery of tests was administered to about 100 first, 84 second, and 110 third graders. Several questions were posed: (1) Do the various tests of integration measure the same underlying ability or are there separate abilities that are tapped by the various tests? (2) Are the various tests correlated with reading because they tap a common integrative ability that is related to reading or are there several abilities, each related to reading independently to the others? (3) To what extent are the relationships between the integrative abilities and reading separate from the relationship between reading and IQ? Results indicated that there are separate integrative abilities, and multiple regression analyses showed that several of the integrative measures were correlated with reading independently of the other measures. Further, several of the integrative measures accounted for significant reading variance beyond that accounted for by IQ tests. The results were discussed in the context of the need to differentiate adequately between various patterns of perceptual weakness in the diagnosis and remediation of perceptually based reading difficulties.

Achievement↗

PubMed1997

What does Daneman and Carpenter's reading span really measure?

Reading span was assessed in three conditions aiming at varying the processing demands of a reading task. In a Sentence Reading Condition, the participants read aloud lists of sentences and memorize the final word of each sentence as in the original task of Daneman and Carpenter. In two other conditions, each sentence was replaced either by a series of unrelated words (Word Reading Condition) or by a series of meaningless syllables (Syllable Reading Condition); in these two conditions, however, each series ended with the same test words as in the Sentence Reading Condition. There was no significant effect of the condition on the scores for reading span. It is concluded that the typically low scores on reading span are not so much due to the processing demands of the task as to the disruptive effects of the articulatory suppression which characterizes the original task.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Scotopic sensitivity/Irlen syndrome and the use of coloured filters: a long-term placebo controlled and masked study of reading achievement and perception of ability.

This study investigated the effects of using coloured filters on reading speed, accuracy, and comprehension as well as on perception of academic ability. A double-masked, placebo-controlled crossover design was used, with subjects being assessed over a period of 20 mo. There were three treatment groups (Placebo filters, Blue filters, and Optimal filters) involving 113 subjects with "reading difficulties", ranging in age from 9.2 yr. to 13.1 yr. and with an average discrepancy between chronological age and reading age of 1.8 yr. The 35 controls (who did not use coloured filters) ranged in age from 9.4 yr. to 12.9 yr., with an average discrepancy between chronological age and reading age of 2.1 yr. The treatment groups increased at a significantly greater rate than the control group in reading accuracy and reading comprehension but not for speed of reading. For self-reported perception of academic ability, two of the three treatment groups showed significantly greater increases than the control group. The larger improvements for treatment groups in reading comprehension may be related to a reduction in print and background distortions allowing attention to be directed to the processing of continuous text rather than to the identification of individual words. A reduction in print distortion, however, may not be sufficient to generate improved word-identification skills without additional remedial support, and this may be indicated by the nonsignificant increase in rate of reading.

Achievement↗

PubMed1999

Comparisons of eye movements before and after a speed-reading course.

BACKGROUND: The techniques of speed reading are widely used and generally accepted, but few studies have investigated whether- and how-speed reading actually improves reading ability in the typical reader. METHODS: Using the Ober2, an infrared monitoring device that accurately tracks eye movements, we measured the eye movements of 59 students. The Ober2 calculates reading speed, number of fixations per 100 words, number of words seen in each fixation, number of regressions per 100 words, and duration of fixation. Comprehension was assessed with ten detailed true or false questions. RESULTS: One group of the students (n = 25) participated in a speed reading class; the other group (n = 34) did not. After completion of the course, all 59 were re-measured on the Ober2. The speed-reading group improved significantly in five of the six aspects tested. Comprehension for the speed reading group showed an insignificant decrease. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that measurable changes in reading eye movements accompany successful completion of a speed-reading course.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Relative locations of macular scotomas near the PRL: effect on low vision reading.

Patients referred for low vision rehabilitation had Minnesota Reading Acuity (MNRead), visual acuity (VA), and scanning laser ophthalmoscope (SLO) macular function testing performed in their initial evaluation to determine whether dense macular scotomas near the preferred retinal locus (PRL) have a significant effect on the characteristics of reading based on rate. The 99 subjects had macular scotoma characteristics relative to the fovea/PRL of: 22% only to the right; 15% only to the left; 26% both the right and left; 19% above or below; 17% had no dense scotomas. Reading performance (maximum reading speed, critical print size, and reading acuity) was significantly different between the non-scotoma group and all of the scotoma groups. There was no statistically significant difference in the characteristics of reading based on rate between the four scotoma groups: within each there was a wide variation in the characteristics of reading based on rate not fully explained by either VA or scotoma location. The position of the scotoma relative to the PRL was not a statistically significant factor in determining reading rate as found in studies on normally sighted people with artificial scotomas. Other factors (e.g., maybe PRL ability in fixation and saccadic eye movements and/or cognitive ability) are significantly involved in determining reading rate characteristics in people with macular scotomas.

Humans↗

PubMed2002

Individual differences in working memory during reading with and without parafoveal information: a moving-window study.

We examined individual differences in working memory appearing in the effective visual field size while reading Japanese text. Working memory capacity was measured by a Japanese reading span test, and the subjects were divided into high- and low-score groups. Reading performance was measured by reading time, comprehension, and eye movements using a variable moving window through which the subject could read areas of the Japanese text. As the window size decreased, the reading time increased significantly. High-span subjects showed better performance in reading time, comprehension, and fixation duration than low-span subjects even in small visual fields. Interestingly, high-span subjects appear to show better information integration during reading, whereas low-span subjects showed less integration without parafoveal vision. These findings suggest that reading performance was better for subjects with larger working memory resources in a parafoveal restriction condition.

Eye Movements↗

PubMed1955

DUAL READING as a routine procedure in mass radiography.

Independent dual reading of survey films of the chest has been used as a routine method in the nation-wide Danish antituberculosis mass campaign. An attempt to evaluate the usefulness of this procedure is made in the present paper, which gives the results of dual reading of 431,550 technically adequate 35-mm chest films taken on adults in 12 Danish counties.The films were first read locally by the chief physician of the county and then subjected to an independent reading by a second (central) reader. All persons whose films were designated as suspicious (i.e., representing photofluorographic indication of pulmonary disease) by at least one of the two readers were referred to the county chest clinics for a large roentgenogram. Altogether 10,391 persons-or 2.4% of the total examined-were referred because of a suspicious chest film. The local and the central readers on an average agreed on only one-third of the referrals.Of the persons subjected to roentgenographic follow-up, 291 were found to have active pulmonary tuberculosis requiring treatment: 243 of these cases had been detected by the local readers, the central readers adding 48, or 20%. A further 2,804 persons presented evidence of clinically significant pulmonary disease other than active tuberculosis requiring treatment or observation: 1,924 of these referrals had been made by the local readers, the central readers adding 880, or 45%. In the remaining 6,907 persons, the large roentgenograms revealed either nothing abnormal or, in a small number of cases, only signs of healed pulmonary disease.Thus, of the 10,002 photofluorograms read as suspicious and checked by large roentgenograms, 6,907 must be classed as "false positives" and 3,095 as "true positives". While the local reading alone resulted in 2.1 false positives to each true positive, dual reading produced 2.2 false positives to each true positive-only a slight increase in the relative extent of over-reading.The reading of the photofluorographic material of the mass campaign was performed by 12 experienced chief tuberculosis physicians. All without exception overlooked clinically significant pulmonary changes in a considerable number of cases, but the individual variations were great. An independent second reading of the photofluorograms thus considerably increased the value, at relatively small expense, of the mass X-ray survey as a case-finding procedure.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

[Reading performance in the scar stage of age-related macular degeneration].

PURPOSE: To evaluate reading performance in patients with age-related macular degeneration (AMD). SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Six normal subjects over 50 years of age and 40 patients with AMD were evaluated. Near visual acuity, critical print size, and maximum reading speed were tested to compare the data from normal subjects with those from AMD patients. Scanning laser ophthalmoscope (SLO) microperimetry was performed to observe fixation in AMD patients. RESULTS: The mean critical print size for normal subjects was 0.15 logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution (log MAR) and the mean maximum reading speed was 307 characters/min. There was a plateau area in reading function where reading speed did not rise and stayed constant even though print size increased. The mean critical print size for AMD patients was 0.97 log MAR, and the mean maximum reading speed was 140 characters/min. The critical print size and maximum reading speed differed significantly between normal and AMD subjects. Eleven of the 40 patients with AMD did not have the character size and reading speed relationship, which means they manifested a plateau as seen in normal subjects. Eight of the 11 patients did not show stable fixation with SLO microperimetry. CONCLUSIONS: The reading performance of AMD patients was remarkably impaired, especially in those with poorer visual function and no fixation.

Aged↗

PubMed2004

Spatiotemporal analysis of neuromagnetic activation associated with mirror reading.

Our previous report has confirmed that visually presented words can elicit neuromagnetic activities from the visual cortex, angular gyrus and Broca's area. It is not clear how the words are visuospatially transformed and recognized by the human brain. Mirror reading is characterized by reading which runs in the opposite direction to normal reading, with reversals of letters. It would be very interesting to find out if there are any neuromagnetic differences between the mirror reading and normal reading. Four right-handed healthy adults have been studied with a whole cortex Magnetoencephalography (MEG) system. The stimuli consisted of eight normal oriented words and eight inverted exclamation mark section "reversed words" (mirror-image of the words). All stimuli were randomly presented on the screen in front of the subjects using DirectX. MEG data were analyzed using both single dipole modeling and synthetic aperture magnetometry (SAM). Four responses to the reversed words were identified in all four subjects. In comparison to the normally oriented words, the reversed words elicited a stronger response at a latency of 248+/-6 ms. SAM results indicated that the reversed words invoked strong activations in the left and right parietal cortices but the normally oriented words did not. The mirror reading elicited one magnetic response which is different from that of the normal reading. The difference between the mirror reading and the normal reading in terms of neuromagnetic activation may reflect the development of novel representations for reversed words.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

The prevalence of specific reading disability in an amblyopic population. A preliminary report.

PURPOSE: To investigate the prevalence of specific reading disability in children with functional amblyopia and to explore the relationship between the two. METHODS: In this prospective study, 20 consecutive children, aged 6 to 15 years (mean 8 +/-1.99 years), and diagnosed with amblyopia underwent a vision and reading assessment. The orthoptic examination included the assessment of participants' visual acuity, ocular motility and binocular functions. Specific reading disability was diagnosed using the Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT III Reading Subtest). Intelligence, phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming (RAN), and the ability to read pseudo or nonsense words was also assessed using various psycho-linguistic reading tests. RESULTS: The prevalence of specific reading disability in this small series of amblyopic children was found to be 5% (n=1/20). This was even less than that reported in the local Victoria general population (16%). The type of amblyopia appeared related to phonological awareness (p=0.018) and decoding words (p=0.024), those with anisometropic amblyopia performing significantly better on these tasks than the strabismic amblyopes. The presence of binocular vision functions was also related to decoding words; those with binocular single vision performed better than those with suppression and lacking single binocular vision (p=0.007). Generally, amblyopic children also showed a lower RAN score when compared to phonological awareness score. There was no statistically significant difference for the severity of amblyopia (p=>0.05). CONCLUSIONS: In this very small pilot series, reading disorders were relatively rare in children with amblyopia. However, strabismic amblyopia and presence of suppression may have an adverse effect on phonological skills. In addition, amblyopia may be associated with a deficit in RAN. Further research is needed and planned to gain a better understanding about the relationship between amblyopia and reading ability.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1988

Reading disability in children with clefts.

The prevalence of reading disability was examined in 172 elementary school children with cleft lip and palate (CLP) or cleft palate only (CPO). Approximately 35 percent of the sample displayed a moderate degree of reading disability, and 17 percent of the group exhibited severe reading disability. Reading disability was more prevalent at younger ages, presumably because of peripheral speech deficits. For older children, those with CLP displayed an incidence of reading disability similar to the general population (9 percent), whereas children with CPO exhibited a much higher rate of reading disability (33 percent). There were no sex differences in the prevalence of reading disability in this sample. The study supports earlier suggestions that children with CPO may be more likely to experience general language disorders leading to long-term reading disabilities. Children with CLP appear to manifest reading problems that tend to resolve with increased age.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1979

The right not to read.

Skill in reading is desirable. However, the importance of reading may be overemphasized in schools. Reading skills are determined relatively and not absolutely. Thus, relatively poor readers will persist. Schools cannot eradicate individual differences. Biological makeup and societal pressures are the important factors in determining reading skill. Present methods of reading remediation are of questionable efficacy and are traumatic to some children. Time with its associated normal development succeeds in remediating the majority of children with dyslexia. Most poor readers eventually attain reading levels that enable them to comprehend the types of printed materials commonly encountered. If a child finds reading difficult or distasteful, that child should be encouraged to read but should have the right not to be forced to read.

Achievement↗

PubMed1994

The reading habits of RACGP Training Program doctors.

AIM: To describe the reading habits of a cohort of Western Australian RACGP Training Program doctors undertaking general practice terms in 1992. METHOD: A questionnaire that included a list of journals and books relevant to general practice was distributed to trainees. Information obtained included demographic data, the frequency of journal reading and the number of books read. RESULTS: There were 68 respondents from a total of 100. Time spent in medical reading ranged from one to 12 hours per week, with a mean of 3.3. The number of journal titles read in the past six months ranged from three to 16. The number of books actually read (from the 39 titles presented) ranged from zero to 17. The most frequently read were the reference type books. Very few of the 'core' books about the nature, scope and philosophy of general practice had been read. CONCLUSIONS: RACGPTP doctors read mainly for information. To produce educated doctors knowledgeable about their chosen discipline, the Training Program will need to place greater emphasis on introducing their vocational trainees to the writings of the thinkers and philosophers of general practice and family medicine.

Adult↗

PubMed1993

Horizontal and vertical reading: a comparative investigation of eye movements.

Electronystagmographic (ENG) recordings of eye movements were made during the horizontal and vertical reading of a standardized text. The text was rotated to one side through an angle of 90 degrees for vertical reading. A total of 35 normal subjects was investigated under identical conditions. The following differences were found: A "staircase" pattern of successive, remarkably regular eye jerks was observed during horizontal reading. The reading speed was significantly higher in the horizontal direction. Vertical eye movements during vertical reading were less regular and showed a greater number of small jerks of varying size. No significant difference in reading speed between the two vertical directions was found. The search coil method (Robinson), which was employed in one subject, yielded much more accurate recordings than did the ENG. As a control experiment for vertical reading, the letters were rotated through 90 degrees. Reading this transposed text took twice as long as reading a 90 degrees-rotated text.

Adult↗

PubMed1995

Effect of kanji and kana reading on cerebral blood flow patterns measured by PET.

To investigate the respective functions of pathways in processing visual information from different types of symbols, by positron emission tomography (PET) we examined the effect on cerebral blood flow (CBF) of reading the Japanese morphogram (kanji) versus the syllabogram (kana). Nine Japanese men were presented with three visual conditions in random order 2 minutes before the scan: eyes open controls, kanji morphogram reading, and kana syllabogram reading. Three words written in kanji or kana were shown, and subjects were instructed to read them silently and to identify the word unrelated logically to the other two. The reading and analyzing tasks activated wide areas of vision-related cortices. The comparison of the kanji and kana readings showed higher metabolism, with the former only in the posterior part of the primary visual cortex. Most of the CBF increases were common for both stimuli, although the patterns of these increases differed slightly. The correlation matrix of CBF change in the left hemisphere showed a ventral connection in kanji reading and a dorsal connection in kana reading. Our results suggest there is a functional differentiation in the brain between patterned and sequential perception when reading Japanese morphograms and syllabograms.

Adult↗