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PubMed2005

Correlation between hypertension and income distribution among United Arab Emirates population.

To determine the correlation between hypertension and income distribution among United Arab Emirates (UAE) population. Case-control study matched for age, sex, nationality and education. The survey included 500 hypertensive adults aged 20-65 years ascertained from Primay Health Care (PHC) Clinics along with a randomly selected sample of 500 control subjects from the community. Face-to-face interviews were done where data were gathered on socio-demographic-economic status (SES) and lifestyle habits. Hypertension was defined according to WHO criteria as having Systolic Blood Pressure (SBP) > or = 140 mm Hg and/or Diastolic Blood Pressure (DBP) > or = 90 mm Hg and/or being on antihypertensive treatment. The survey was carried out in urban and semi-urban PHC Clinics. A total of 818 subjects were included in this study from a sample of 1000; 409 cases and 409 controls. There were 422 males and 396 females in this study, with 255 UAE nationals and 438 expatriates. Hypertension was found to be significantly higher among the low income group (35.2% vs. 24.9% controls, p = 0.002; while mean SBP in the low income group was 130.2 +/- 17.6 vs. 128.0 +/- 17.4 controls, p = 0.022). Among males, smoking and alcohol consumption were higher among the group with low income level but only smoking showed significant difference (p value = 0.016). Activity level was higher among the low income groups. This study supports the importance of socio-economic factors as an income distribution effect on life-style habits and hypertension.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Differences in income distribution data between the population census and household surveys (PNAD): conceptual and operational aspects].

"The [purpose] of this article is to explain the main differences between the concepts and the [collection procedures] of income distribution data used in [the] 1980 demographic census and in [the] 1979 and 1981 household surveys in Brazil. The article also comments [on] some differences about the data information on income distribution produced by census and household surveys." (SUMMARY IN ENG)

Americas↗
PubMed1987

Remittances and income distribution.

"The paper studies the effects of [foreign] remittances on the pattern of income distribution in Yugoslavia. It is found that remittances raise the Gini coefficient, although unequally as between different social groups. One reason may be that in social groups where the diffusion of information is relatively even (as among urban households) migration is more uniform across income groups than it is in social groups where the access to information depends primarily on the level of income (e.g. rural households). In the latter groups distribution of migrants is more skewed towards higher income groups and remittances increase the level of inequality more substantially." Data are from household surveys conducted in Yugoslavia in 1973, 1978, and 1983.

Communication↗
PubMed1987

Economic policy and income distribution in China.

"Using the Kakwani interpolation method to reconstruct rural and urban size distributions, the authors present Lorenz curve estimates for Chinese income distribution by period, 1952-1986. The level of inequality is one of the lowest in the world. The change in inequality over time conforms to the experience of other less-developed countries. Although rural inequality increased after 1978, national inequality fell, due to a reduction in the rural-urban income gap."

Asia↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Differences in household characteristics by income distribution in Pakistan.

The authors examine household characteristics by income distribution in Pakistan using data from the 1979 Population, Labour Force and Migration (PLM) Survey. Tabular data, organized by measures of income and expenditure, are presented on average household size, dependency ratios, average number of children and average number of adults, proportion of female household members, labor force participation rates for various ages, and occupational status of heads of households. The authors conclude that "the findings for Pakistan generally are in consonance with those for other Third World countries and confirm that certain characteristics are associated with poverty." Comments by Karol J. Krotki are also included (pp. 668-9).

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Income distribution in rural Sagar.

"The study makes an attempt to identify the pattern of household income distribution in rural areas, based on the socio-economic surveys in Sagar district [in India]." Factors affecting family income include "occupational structure, distance from nearby urban centers and general accessibility.... The rural settlements under urban influence or with proper accessibility have a greater percentage of high-income families. The major source of income for over a third of the rural families of the district is agricultural labour, while another third earns its living by other agricultural work and the rest are either petty businessmen or are engaged in services."

Asia↗
PubMed1988

Age structure and income distribution policy.

The dependence of earnings on age is a firmly established empirical fact. A simple microeconomic model of educational choice, being consistent with this observation, is designed. The model lends itself readily to aggregation over individuals and age groups. Thus, relations can be set up between economic variables influencing the aggregate distribution of labor incomes and demographic variables determining the age structure of the population. The main results of the present study are: 1) overall earnings inequality is shown to be an increasing function of life expectancy and a decreasing function of fertility. 2) The effectiveness of redistributive policies is sensitive to the age composition. In particular, the inequality-reducing effect of a 1% income tax rise is shown to be smaller the older the population.

Age Distribution↗
PubMed1998

Income distribution, socioeconomic status, and self rated health in the United States: multilevel analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effect of inequalities in income within a state on self rated health status while controlling for individual characteristics such as socioeconomic status. DESIGN: Cross sectional multilevel study. Data were collected on income distribution in each of the 50 states in the United States. The Gini coefficient was used to measure statewide inequalities in income. Random probability samples of individuals in each state were collected by the 1993 and 1994 behavioural risk factor surveillance system, a random digit telephone survey. The survey collects information on an individual's income, education, self rated health and other health risk factors. SETTING: All 50 states. SUBJECTS: Civilian, non-institutionalised (that is, non-incarcerated and non-hospitalised) US residents aged 18 years or older. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Self rated health status. RESULTS: When personal characteristics and household income were controlled for, individuals living in states with the greatest inequalities in income were 30% more likely to report their health as fair or poor than individuals living in states with the smallest inequalities in income. CONCLUSIONS: Inequality in the distribution of income was associated with an adverse impact on health independent of the effect of household income.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Before you change the income distribution formula....

Few issues get more attention in a group practice than physician income distribution, according to author Susan Cejka. With the growth in prepaid health plans, the need to restructure the compensation formula is greater than ever. Cejka's article describes how to successfully make these necessary adjustments.

Financial Management↗
PubMed2002

Individual income, income distribution, and self rated health in Japan: cross sectional analysis of nationally representative sample.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effects on self rated health of individual income and income distribution in Japan. DESIGN: Cross sectional analysis. Data collected on household income, self rated health, and other sociodemographic characteristics at the individual level from comprehensive survey of the living conditions of people on health and welfare in a nationally representative sample from each prefecture. SETTING: Prefectures in Japan. PARTICIPANTS: 80 899 people aged >15 years with full records in survey. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Dichotomous variable for self rated health of each respondent (0 if excellent, very good or good; 1 if fair or poor). RESULTS: Inequality in income at the prefecture level measured by the Gini coefficient was comparable with that in other industrialised countries. Unadjusted odds ratios show a 14% increased risk (odds ratio 1.14, 95% confidence interval 1.02 to 1.27) in reporting poor or fair health for individuals living in prefectures with higher inequality in income. After adjustment, individual income was more strongly associated with self rated health than income inequality. Additional inclusion of regional effects showed that median income at the prefecture level was inversely related to self rated health. CONCLUSIONS: Individual income, probably relative to the median prefecture income, has a stronger association with self rated health than income inequality at the prefecture level.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Income distribution and mortality: cross sectional ecological study of the Robin Hood index in the United States.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effect of income inequality as measured by the Robin Hood index and the Gini coefficient on all cause and cause specific mortality in the United States. DESIGN: Cross sectional ecological study. SETTING: Households in the United States. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Disease specific mortality, income, household size, poverty, and smoking rates for each state. RESULTS: The Robin Hood index was positively correlated with total mortality adjusted for age (r = 0.54; P < 0.05). This association remained after adjustment for poverty (P < 0.007), where each percentage increase in the index was associated with' an increase in the total mortality of 21.68 deaths per 100,000. Effects of the index were also found for infant mortality (P = 0.013); coronary heart disease (P = 0.004); malignant neoplasms (P = 0.023); and homicide (P < 0.001). Strong associations were also found between the index and causes of death amenable to medical intervention. The Gini coefficient showed very little correlation with any of the causes of death. CONCLUSION: Variations between states in the inequality of income were associated with increased mortality from several causes. The size of the gap between the wealthy and less well off--as distinct from the absolute standard of living enjoyed by the poor--seems to matter in its own right. The findings suggest that policies that deal with the growing inequities in income distribution may have an important impact on the health of the population.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Researching income and income distribution as determinants of health in Canada: gaps between theoretical knowledge, research practice, and policy implementation.

The research identified gaps in Canadian knowledge and research activity concerning the roles that income and its distribution play in Canadians' population health. 241 Canadian research studies on income and health were considered along eight taxonomies: conceptualization of income or its proxies; theoretical underpinnings; income distribution measures; health measures; who/what was studied, pathways mediating between income and health; complexity of these pathways; research design; and presence of policy implications. The study identified the following areas of weakness: (a) poor conceptualization of income and the means by which it influences health; (b) lack of longitudinal studies of the impact of income-related issues upon health across the life-span; (c) lack of linked data bases that allow complex analyses of how income and related issues contribute to health and well-being, and (d) little inter-disciplinary work in identifying pathways mediating the income and health relationship. Advances in health policy to address the health effects of income and its distribution requires a research infrastructure that draws upon recent theoretical developments in the area and is able to access data sources to test these advanced conceptualizations.

Canada↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Private health expenditures and income distribution in Brazil].

BACKGROUND: This paper analyses the share of the family private health expenditures in the Brazilian GDP and in personal income; and the distribution of the family private health expenditures among social groups. METHODS: The research utilized the 1998 Brazilian Home Sample Survey (Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicilios) with the division of the population into four social groups according to the family income per capita; and the distribution of the family private health expenditures among health insurance, physicians, other health professionals, medical tests, drugs, orthopedic and other medical durables, vision products, dental services, hospital care, nursing home care and other health spending. RESULTS: In 1998, only 7.2% of the population with family income per capita up to 1 minimum wage had health insurance and the health expenditures of this group, that represented 52.5% of the population, was US$ 4.62 per capita. For the people with 9 and more minimum wages per capita the health insurance coverage was 83.2% and the health expenditures was US$ 114.66 per capita. CONCLUSIONS: The implementation of the Brazilian public universal health care system in 1988 denominated "Sistema Unico de Saude" was followed by an expressive expansion of private insurance coverage in the 1990's. Even if all public health expenditures had been exclusively directed to the population without any private insurance, these people's health expenditures would only reach 43% of the health expenditures of those with private insurance.

Brazil↗