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PubMed1991

Gender differences in tobacco use.

Gender differences in overall tobacco use clearly exist. In general, men are more likely to use tobacco products than are women. However, this simple generalization, ignoring type of tobacco products, time, and culture, masks many more interesting gender differences in tobacco use. There are pronounced gender differences in tobacco use of specific tobacco products within some cultures but not others. Yet these differences have changed across time, including narrowing and widening of this gender gap, depending on culture and tobacco product. This article addresses these issues and presents possible psychosocial, biological, and psychobiological explanations for these phenomena. In addition, the implications of these differences and ways to learn more about these important differences are discussed.

Adult↗

PubMed1995

Gender differences in pain.

Apparent gender differences have been identified in epidemiologic surveys of patients with pain and in clinical studies of responses to pain. Women are reported to have lower pain thresholds and lower pain tolerance than men have. Whether women are more willing to report pain than men are or experience pain differently than men do is unclear. However, beliefs about gender differences and pain affect nurses' decisions made regarding the treatment of pain. This article reviews the literature addressing pain in women and suggests how clinical practice is affected. Literature from Medline (1966 to 1994), CINAHL (1983 to 1994), and Psych-Lit (1967 to 1994) data bases was searched using the key words pain, gender, and sex. Comments in the manuscript reflect only those studies addressing epidemiology, experimentally-induced pain, or pain in the clinical setting. Studies describing gender differences in an animal model were not included. Limitations of space required that representative examples of studies in the major areas be included; others describing similar design and outcome were not included.

Adult↗

PubMed1996

Gender differences in local and systemic reactions to inactivated influenza vaccine, established by a meta-analysis of fourteen independent studies.

In order to determine whether there is a difference between genders in reported adverse reactions to inactivated influenza vaccine, a computerized database of serological studies was investigated. A standardized questionnaire was used to evaluate vaccine reactogenicity. A total of 1,800 vaccinees in 14 studies were analyzed separately for two age groups ( < 60 and > or = 60 years of age). Females reported significantly more local reactions than males. The pooled odds ratio for the outcome measure "any local reaction" was 0.32 (95% confidence interval, 0.26-0.40, significant) and 0.54 (95% Cl, 0.41-0.70, significant) for young and elderly adults, respectively. Similar results were obtained for the outcome measure "any systemic reaction." Previous exposure to influenza or influenza vaccine had no influence on reactogenicity. There were no gender differences in sero-responses. In conclusion, gender should be regarded as a predictor of reported reactions to influenza vaccine in both young and elderly adults and should be addressed in future study designs.

Adult↗

PubMed1993

Gender differences in substance use among Mexican American school-age children.

This study identified differences in gender between and among fourth, fifth, and sixth grade Mexican American students for use of four specific "minor" substances: cigarettes, beer, wine/liquor, and marijuana. Minor substances are believed to serve as a "gateway" to more intense and frequent use of minor and major substances. Students (N = 2,216; males 52% and females 48%) were surveyed to ascertain information pertaining to their substance use. The chi-square statistic found significant gender differences at the fourth and fifth grade for use of minor substances. Patterns of initiation of minor substance use by gender and grade are discussed in the context of substance use stage theory. Overall, results support the need for further research emphasizing within group variations in the substance use of singular ethnic groups.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1997

Gender differences in sexual activity among mid-aged adults in Massachusetts.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to determine if self-reported measures of sexual activity differ between aging men and women. METHODS: Responses to 12 questions concerning various aspects of sexual activity were compared between 349 women and 589 men aged 51-61, who were participants in two larger community surveys in Massachusetts conducted in 1987 and 1988. Comparisons were made by least squares means adjusted for age, socio-demographic and health-related variables. Analyses were stratified by the presence or absence of one or more current sexual partners. RESULTS: Regardless of partner status, overall satisfaction with sex life did not differ between men and women. For those with partners, the mean frequency of intercourse was somewhat higher for women than men, while mean frequency of sexual desire and fantasies was significantly higher for men. Similar results were seen for those without partners, although frequency was lower and did not differ by gender. CONCLUSIONS: We found no gender difference in sexual satisfaction and little difference in frequency in mid-aged adults, but sexual desire and fantasies were more common for men.

Aging↗

PubMed1995

Gender differences in schizotypic features in a large sample of young adults.

Research with self-report measures of schizotypic or psychosis-prone features in nonclinical populations suggests that, similarly to schizophrenic populations, males score higher on more "negative" schizotypic features and females score higher on more "positive" schizotypic features. We administered the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire and the Chapman Scales of Psychosis Proneness--impulsivity/nonconformity, magical ideation, perceptual aberration, physical anhedonia, and social anhedonia--to a large, nonclinical, young adult sample (N = 1179: 453 males and 726 females). Results indicated increased negative symptomatology in males compared with females, but not increased positive symptomatology in females compared with males. Findings on Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire factors suggested that interpersonal deficits differed by gender as well. Finally, a measure of impulsive behavior and nonconformity not typically associated with negative symptomatology indicated gender differences not predicted by a negative/positive dichotomy.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1993

Gender differences in cochlear response time: an explanation for gender amplitude differences in the unmasked auditory brain-stem response.

Derived narrow-band auditory brain-stem responses (ABRs) in young normal-hearing subjects revealed a significant gender difference in response time between frequency regions of the cochlea. Females showed shorter delays than males between derived bands. This differential has not been previously reported. As in many early studies, the unmasked amplitude of the wave V complex was significantly larger (30%) in females than males. However, differences in amplitudes of the narrow-band responses were too small to account for the differential in the unmasked response. It is hypothesized that the larger amplitude of the unmasked wave V complex in females occurs because of a faster response time across the cochlea leading to better neural synchrony and, therefore, larger amplitudes. Furthermore, results can be explained by assuming that the stiffness gradient in the cochlea is 13% larger in females than in males. If males and females have the same cochlear tonotopic mapping, the female cochlea should be 13% shorter. This prediction is highly consistent with recent anatomical studies of cochlear length and gender. The results of the present study indicated possibly important cochlear mechanisms that influence the main parameters of ABRs. An understanding of these cochlear mechanisms may improve the diagnostic capabilities of ABRs in patients with peripheral hearing loss.

Acoustic Stimulation↗

PubMed1998

Gender differences in ADHD?

This study examined possible gender differences in children and adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Results indicated that adult self-ratings differed significantly by gender. Adult women reported fewer assets and more problems than did male counterparts, but there was no gender difference with respect to age at referral, intelligence quotient, indicators of neuropsychological performance, or parent or teacher ratings of behavior. Referral bias against girls is a possible reason for previously reported gender differences, so we interpreted our results in light of the participants' referral patterns. There was a nonsignificant trend for girls with relatively more severe ratings of hyperactivity, conduct disorder, or inattention to be referred earlier than were boys. Overall, our results suggest no evidence of cognitive or neuropsychological differences by gender in samples that are sensitive to behavioral deviance in girls (as evidenced by early referral), but adult women's self-perception is comparatively poorer than that of adult men.

Adolescent↗

PubMedDate not supplied

The role of spouses of substance abusers in treatment: gender differences.

Studies exploring gender differences among substance abusers in treatment have been fairly consistent in finding that females who enter treatment express more severe psychological and psychosocial disturbances than males, despite presenting with shorter and less intense substance abuse histories. However, strands of evidence suggest that the presence of a spouse, generally perceived as an asset in the treatment of the substance abuser, may have different implications for females than for males. In order to clarify this issue, 67 male and 18 female married substance abusers in treatment and their spouses were questioned on their substance use and psychological and social functioning. Similar to other studies, the female substance abusers reported greater disturbance on dimensions of employment and psychological functioning, but less severity of alcohol abuse. Comparison of male and female spouses, however, revealed that male spouses were likely to present with the following characteristics: (1) more symptoms of substance abuse and depression, (2) less overall physical well-being, and (3) to be less inclined to help others or be involved with their children than the female spouses. These findings are consistent with the view that the process of substance abuse is telescoped in females and is associated with more disturbed functioning in women on admission to treatment than in men. However, contextual differences--specifically in terms of availability of spousal support--may contribute significantly both to the understanding of differences in female versus male substance abusers in treatment as well as to the development of guidelines for adapting treatment based on gender.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Gender differences in smoking cessation.

Gender differences in smoking quit rates are frequently reported and are the subject of much speculation. This study examined the generalizability of gender differences in abstinence across study sites, treatments, and time of relapse, as well as potential mediators and moderators of gender effects. Participants were smokers who participated in 3 randomized clinical trials of the nicotine patch (N = 632). Men had higher cessation rates than women at all follow-ups. The impact of gender on abstinence was unaffected by controlling for study site, treatment, or time of relapse. There was little evidence for mediation or moderation of this relation by any of a host of predictor variables. The magnitude and consistency of the gender differential, coupled with an inability to account for it, highlights a compelling need for additional research specifically aimed at elucidating the relation between gender and abstinence.

Administration, Cutaneous↗

PubMed1990

Gender differences in regional cerebral blood flow.

Gender differences have been noted in neurobehavioral studies. The 133xenon inhalation method for measuring regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) can contribute to the understanding of the neural basis of gender differences in brain function. Few studies have examined gender differences in rCBF. In studies of normal subjects, women have higher rates of CBF than men, and this is related to age. Usually by the sixth decade men and women have similar flow rates. Fewer studies on rCBF in schizophrenia have examined sex differences. The pattern of higher flows for females maintains, but its correlates with gender differences in clinical as well as other parameters of brain function remain to be examined.

Adult↗

PubMed1991

Demoralization and gender differences in a kibbutz.

Gender differences in demoralization (depressive symptoms) were examined in a first-ever true prevalence study conducted in a kibbutz. The unusual organizational arrangements of this commune, where women have achieved higher levels of equality than in most other societies, offered a laboratory-like opportunity to test the psychosocial factors imputed as a partial explanation for the higher rates of demoralization in women. Demoralization was studied using the 27-item scale of the Psychiatric Epidemiology Research Interview (PERI) in all of the adult population of a single kibbutz. The response rate was close to 95%. Univariate and multivariate analyses were conducted to assess the effects of key sociodemographic and kibbutz-related variables on gender differences. The results showed that women had higher mean scores and rates even after these variables were controlled. The female:male demoralization ratio was well within the range of results obtained in non-socialist Israeli urban settings. The paper concludes with a discussion on the tentative relevance of the study results for the interpretation of the 2:1 female-male ratio of depression found in the epidemiological literature.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMed2001

Motives for HIV testing among drug users: an analysis of gender differences.

This article examines gender differences related to why 66 injection and noninjection drug users tested for HIV. Study participants from three northern California counties underwent an open-ended qualitative interview covering: access to HIV testing, the meaning of HIV testing and test results, drug and sexual risk behaviors, and behavior changes associated with HIV testing, as well as a brief quantitative survey. The responses were analyzed using the following categories: (a) financial incentives for testing, (b) concerns related to family members and significant others, and (c) personal anxieties due to lack of knowledge of HIV status. Analyses showed that gender differences exist regarding reasons for HIV testing. The most significant finding was that women were motivated to test with regard to concerns related to family and significant others in their life more so than men, particularly during pregnancy. The impetus to test for many individuals was dependent on a social setting, such as jail, hospital, or drug rehabilitation program. Further research examining the motivational factors why drug users test for HIV can provide valuable information for outreach and marketing of HIV counseling-and-testing services.

AIDS Serodiagnosis↗

PubMed2000

Gender differences in metabolism; nutrition and supplements.

For many decades researchers did not consider that there were any differences between the genders in the metabolic response to exercise. As a result, nutritional recommendations and exercise training prescriptions have not considered the potential for gender specific responses. More recently, we and others have demonstrated that females oxidize proportionately more lipid and less carbohydrate during endurance exercise as compared to males. The oxidation of amino acids is similarly lower in females as compared to males during exercise. These gender differences are partially mediated by a higher estrogen concentration in females. Specific areas where there are gender differences in nutritional/supplement recommendations include carbohydrate (CHO) nutrition, protein requirements and creatine (CRM) supplementation. We have shown that females do not carbohydrate load in response to an increase in dietary carbohydrate when expressed as a percentage of total energy intake (i.e., 55-75%), however if they consume >8 g CHOxkg(-1)xd(-1), they show similar increases as compared to males. Top sport male and female athletes require somewhat more dietary protein as compared to sedentary persons. The maximal increase is approximately 100% for elite male athletes and approximately 50-60% for elite female athletes. Fortunately, most athletes habitually consume this level of protein intake. We have recently demonstrated that females show a lesser increase in lean body mass following acute CRM loading as compared to males. Females also did not show reductions in protein breakdown in response to CRM loading, whereas males did. In the future I expect that there will be further research from which gender specific nutritional/supplement recommendations can be made.

Animals↗

PubMed1997

Gender differences in blue collar workers' use of hearing protection.

In this study, the Health Promotion Model (HPM) was used as the basis for a structural equation model of male and female blue collar workers' self-reported use of hearing protection devices (HPDs). Overall use did not differ by gender; in addition, self-efficacy and barriers to use of HPDs were the two best predictors of this behavior for both men and women. Despite the similarities in HPD use and the most important predictors of that use between men and women, the predictive models differed by gender in several ways. Significant predictors of use among men also included age and value of use of HPDs. For women, ethnic status and plant site were additional significant predictors of use. Because the influences of plant site and gender on self-reported use of HPDs could not be separated in this study, further research should address worksite culture and assess differences by gender. Knowledge of these differences will aid development of more effective interventions and may increase the use of hearing protection.

Adult↗

PubMed1990

Perceptions of sexual harassment: a re-examination of gender differences.

There is mixed evidence for gender differences in perceptions of sexual harassment. To help clarify the existence of gender differences, we examined the sexual-harassment perceptions of 409 state government employees in the western United States. Few gender differences were found. We also compared the workers' perceptions to findings from a previous study of students (Terpstra & Baker, 1987). The relative ordering of the incidents' perceived severity was very similar, but workers perceived a number of incidents to be more harassing than did students. Thus, the major differences found were between students and workers, not between genders. Potential theoretical and methodological causes of these findings are discussed.

Adult↗

PubMed1996

Gender differences in aggression as a function of provocation: a meta-analysis.

In this article, we meta-analytically examine experimental studies to assess the moderating effect of provocation on gender differences in aggression. Convergent evidence shows that, whereas unprovoked men are more aggressive than women, provocation markedly attenuates this gender difference. Gender differences in appraisals of provocation intensity and fear of danger from retaliation (but not negative affect) partially mediate the attenuating effect of provocation. However, they do not entirely account for its manipulated effect. Type of provocation and other contextual variables also affect the magnitude of gender differences in aggression. The results support a social role analysis of gender differences in aggression and counter A. H. Eagly and V. Steffen's (1986) meta-analytic inability to confirm an attenuating effect of provocation on gender differences in aggression.

Adult↗

PubMed1995

Gender differences in alcohol metabolism. Physiological responses to ethanol.

A gender difference in alcohol pharmacokinetics has been suggested to explain why women are more vulnerable to ethanol's toxic effects. The results of animal experiments suggest that females exhibit higher alcohol metabolic rates than males as a result of hormonal differences. Experimental results examining gender differences in human alcohol metabolism have been inconsistent; the diversity of experimental protocols and variety of pharmacokinetic parameters reported have made comparisons of these studies very difficult. Variability in alcohol metabolic rate between individuals of the same sex is often significant, preventing an assessment of gender differences in some studies. This chapter attempts to summarize the findings of studies from the last decade that examined the role of gender and sex hormone differences on ethanol metabolism in men and women. The role of body composition, genetic factors, gastric and hepatic alcohol dehydrogenase, and gastric absorption in creating gender differences in alcohol metabolism is discussed. Suggestions are offered that may result in better cross-study comparisons and more consistent experimental results.

Alcohol Dehydrogenase↗