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PubMed2004

Attachment representations and characteristics of friendship relations during adolescence.

Attachment theory proposes that experiences with the primary caregivers are an important basis for the development of close social relationships outside the parent-child relationship. This study examined the association between representations of attachment, as assessed with the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI), representations of friendship and peer relations, as assessed with an interview in a sample of 43 adolescents. Secure attachment representations were significantly related to interview-based assessments of close friendships, friendship concept, integration in a peer group, and emotion regulation within close friendships. Attachment experiences reported during the AAI, their integration, and their coherency were related to friendship quality and friendship concept. Results show the close associations between attachment representations and friendship relationships during adolescence. The associations between peer relations and attachment representations differed depending on whether an interview approach or a questionnaire approach was used.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Friendship and adjustment among adolescents.

This study investigated the relation of friendship and emotional adjustment in adolescents. Both quantitative (popularity, mutual friendships, and number of friends) and qualitative dimensions (perceived positive friendship quality and conflict) of friendship were used. Participants were 618, mostly European American, 8th-, 10th-, and 12th-graders. Structural equation modeling showed that positive friendship quality was the only friendship variable that predicted adjustment. An examination of gender effects indicated that this relation held only for boys. The quantitative aspects of friendship had a small, indirect effect on adjustment through their effects on positive quality. Conflict had a negative effect on positive quality and this effect was stronger for girls than for boys. The role of adolescents' perception in adjustment was highlighted and suggestions for future research were made.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

Friendship quality and sociometric status: between-group differences and links to loneliness in severely abused and nonabused children.

OBJECTIVE: There were two main aims: first, to illuminate the difference between abused children's general popularity with classmates and success in close friendships; second, to examine the specific interactional qualities of abused children's friendships and their links to loneliness. METHOD: Thirty-five severely abused children and 43 matched, nonabused children were compared on peer-rated sociometric status, self-reported loneliness, and observed and self-reported friendship quality. RESULTS: Abused children were not rated significantly lower sociometrically, nor did they differ significantly from control children on several measures of friendship quality, such as resolving conflicts and helping each other. However, abused children were observed to be more negative and less proactive in their interactions. They also reported their friendships as being more conflictual, and as higher on betrayal and lower on caring. Only observational friendship variables predicted loneliness. CONCLUSIONS: The results challenge the assumption that abused children's peer relationships are uniformly more maladaptive than nonabused children's, and point to the possible benefits of structured interventions for "normalizing" their friendship interactions. The pattern of difficulties exhibited by abused children (e.g., conflict) provides foci for more specific interventions. Multi-method assessments are necessary and the multi-dimensional nature of children's social adjustment is important to understand.

Child↗
PubMed1989

Recent friendships in anxious and depressed school age children.

A consecutive series of school age children (7 to 16 years) with emotional disorders (N = 100) were compared with a series of community controls (N = 100) matched for age, sex and social class for the quality of their friendships. A semi-structured interview was developed to measure the quality of friendship for this purpose. Significantly more (48%) children with emotional disorder were likely to be rated as experiencing moderate to poor friendships in the 12 months prior to the onset of symptoms than were controls (16%) in the 12 months prior to interview. Prepubertal children with moderate to poor friendship patterns were classified as either predominantly anxious or depressed. Postpubertal children with moderate to poor friendships patterns were, in contrast, predominantly anxious. These findings suggest that puberty denotes a point of change for the impact of friendship deficits on the psychopathology of emotional disorder. There were no sex differences in the clinical classification of children with moderate or poor friendship patterns.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Patterns of friendship among girls with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Examined patterns of friendship participation, stability, and quality among previously unfamiliar, ethnically diverse girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; n = 140) and comparison (n = 88) girls, aged 6-12 years, who attended 5-week naturalistic summer camps. Each girl completed sociometric nominations during Weeks 1, 3, and 5 of the camps; friendships were indexed by examining patterns of reciprocal nominations. At each assessment point, girls with ADHD had fewer mutual friends and were more likely to have no friends. Girls with Combined-type ADHD exhibited difficulties maintaining friendships from the beginning to middle of camp, whereas girls with Inattentive-type ADHD demonstrated poor friendship stability from the middle to end of camp. In general, girls with ADHD had higher levels of negative relationship features-including conflict and relational aggression-than did comparison girls, but levels of positive relationship features did not differ across subgroups. Friendship status predicted positive and negative peer regard, controlling for Verbal IQ and diagnostic status. Overall, although girls with ADHD were able to make friends to some extent, they differed from comparison girls in terms of the likelihood of doing so, the ability to maintain the friendships that they did form, and the levels of negative features found in their friendships.

Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity↗
PubMed2006

Breaking the cycle of loneliness? Psychological effects of a friendship enrichment program for older women.

The present study examines effects of participation in the friendship enrichment program, an intervention that is designed to stimulate improvement in friendship, self-esteem and subjective well-being, as well as reduction in loneliness among older women. The intervention group was compared to a control group of women who were interested in the program or in improving their friendships. All respondents had been studied at three points in time: at a baseline, prior to the program; three months later, and 9-10 months after baseline. The results indicate that the program was successful in attracting lonely older women who were willing to work on their friendships. Many participants reported improvement in the quantity and quality of their friendships. The program was moderately successful in stimulating improvement in subjective well-being and awareness of the need for an active stance toward achieving goals in social relations, especially in friendship. Loneliness among the participants was reduced, but it also declined in the control group, and both groups continued to experience loneliness. One conclusion is that an effective intervention to help older women reduce their loneliness should be multi-dimensional focusing not only on friendship but also on other personal and situational factors contributing to loneliness.

Aged↗
PubMed2006

Qualities of online friendships with different gender compositions and durations.

This study was designed to examine the qualities of online friendships with different gender compositions that had been maintained for varying periods of time. A total of 167 Hong Kong Internet-users rated the qualities of their same-sex and cross-sex online friendships on measures such as intimacy, trust, self-disclosure, and relational satisfaction. A 2 (gender of respondents: male vs. female) x 2 (gender of online friends: same-sex vs. opposite-sex) x 3 (duration of friendships: less than 1 year vs. 1-2 years vs. more than 2 years) factorial design was adopted. MANOVA results reveal the three-way interaction effect on intimacy, trust, and relational satisfaction. Specifically, the qualities of male-female, female-male, and female-female online friendships were generally higher for those with a longer duration than those at the early stage of friendship development. However, the qualities of male-male friendships that had been maintained for more than 2 years were lower than those maintained for 2 years or less. These findings suggest that qualities of online friendships are subject to effects of gender composition and duration. The conceptual implications of these results are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Dyadic analyses of friendship in a sample of preschool-age children attending Head Start: correspondence between measures and implications for social competence.

Friendships among a large sample of preschool-age children (N = 471) attending Head Start were assessed. Based on sociometric data, friendship dyads were identified as reciprocated (mutual choice) or nonreciprocated (unilateral choice). Dyads were further classified with respect to gender composition as either same- or mixed-gender dyads. Older children were more likely to participate in a reciprocated friendship than were younger children and reciprocated dyads were more likely to be same-gender than were nonreciprocated dyads. Analyses of interaction between dyad partners revealed that reciprocated friends interacted more frequently across all categories of interaction coded and looked at each other more frequently than did members of nonreciprocated dyads. For the positive interaction subscore, the friendship status effect was modified by a significant interaction with gender composition such that significant effects of friendship status were obtained only for same-gender dyads. Additional analyses indicated that the average social competence level was greater for reciprocated dyads than for nonreciprocated dyads. The findings suggest that reciprocated friendships are meaningful for preschool-age children and may serve as special socialization contexts in which the repertoire of behavior can be exercised and perhaps improved. They also highlight the salience of same-gender friendships in the preschool classroom.

Child, Preschool↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The greater fragility of females' versus males' closest same-sex friendships.

Sixty females and 60 males between 10 and 15 years of age were interviewed about difficulties in current and past close same-sex friendships. Based on prior studies, it was hypothesized that females' closest same-sex friendships would be more fragile than those of males. Analyses comparing only the closest same-sex friendship of the two sexes demonstrated that females' current friendships were of a shorter duration, that females were more distressed than males when imagining the potential termination of their friendships, that more females' than males' friends already had done something to hurt the friendship, and that females had more former friendships that had ended than males had. Possible reasons are discussed for the greater vulnerability of this type of relationship for females.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Learning the ropes together: assimilation and friendship development among first-year male medical students.

This study explores the mutual influences of friendship development and organizational assimilation processes among first-year male medical students. Interviews and observations were used to examine the ways students constructed and enacted their friendships with male classmates during the process of assimilating into medical school. The study also examined how the male friends viewed the influence of their friendships on their assimilation into medical school and how the assimilation process simultaneously influenced their developing friendships. Thematic analysis revealed that although the men perceived their medical school friendships as "not yet close," the friendships provided them with valuable tangible and socio-emotional support during the rigorous assimilation process and that the assimilation process paradoxically facilitated as well as hindered the development of friendships. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

Acculturation↗
PubMed2000

Successful friendships of Hispanic children and youth with disabilities: an exploratory study.

Interviews were conducted with Hispanic children who had a disability and a friend with whom they had a successful friendship, as well as with parents and teachers. We focused the interviews on the children's and adults' descriptions of the friendship, what each of the children gave to and received from the friendship, the evolution of the friendship in terms of intensity, and the influence of Hispanic cultural values. A friendship support conceptual framework is presented to organize the data related to three relationship domains (companionship, instrumental support, and emotional support) and three friendship depth levels (acquaintance, casual, and intimate). We focused our key recommendations on future directions for research and friendship facilitation.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Friendship in childhood and adulthood: lessons across the life span.

Friendship occupies an important place in the growing body of literature in child development and gerontological research. As such, it may be useful for researchers from both fields to consider what can be learned from work carried out in each tradition. Therefore, we present a selected review of topics in friendship research across the life span. Through discussion of the value of friendship, the development of friendship, challenges to friendship, the gendered nature of friendship, and the connection between friends and family, points of commonality and contrast are identified. We conclude by presenting possible avenues for future investigation for researchers interested in friendship at any point in the life span.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Gender, grade, and relationship differences in emotional closeness within adolescent friendships.

Previous research has examined gender and grade differences in the emotional closeness of adolescents' same- and cross-sex friendships. However, findings from these studies have been inconsistent because they have failed to (1) differentiate between cross-sex friendships and romantic relationships and (2) compare same- and cross-sex friendships. In an attempt to clarify previous findings, gender and grade differences in adolescent reports of emotional closeness within same- and cross-sex friendships were examined in the current study. Responses from two hundred seventy adolescents indicated gender differences in reports of time spent with their friends daily and levels of relationship closeness, cohesion, and commitment. Further, grade moderated relationship differences in reports of relationship cohesion and closeness. Differences in predictors of intimacy support previous studies that have found grade and gender differences in levels of intimacy in adolescents' same- and cross-sex friendships. Results also elaborate on previous research by indicating grade differences in adolescents' perceptions of cohesion and closeness in their same- and cross-sex friendships. Findings are discussed in terms of understanding differences in adolescent reports of intimacy within same- and cross-sex friendships.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Behavioral, affective, and social correlates of involvement in cross-sex friendship in elementary school.

The purpose of this study was to compare children with and without cross-sex friends on measures of social and cognitive competence, endorsement of sex-role stereotypes, and family composition. Subjects were 723 third and fourth graders (377 girls, 346 boys) from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds; 35% were African American. Measures included sociometric assessments of peer acceptance, friendship, and behavioral reputation, as well as self-reports of perceived self-competence and endorsement of sex-role stereotypes. In addition, teachers completed ratings of children's social and cognitive competence. In all, 92 children, about 14% of the sample, had one or more reciprocal opposite-sex friends; for 21 of these children, their cross-sex friendships were their primary or only friendships. African American children were more likely than European American children to have opposite-sex friends. Involvement in cross-sex friendships was unrelated to the gender make-up of the classroom but was related to family structure. Comparisons of the children who had primarily or only cross-sex friends to matched groups of children who had only same-sex friends and to children who had cross-sex friends secondarily to same-sex ones revealed a number of differences between the groups in social competence and relationships with peers. Overall, children with primarily opposite-sex friends had poorer social skills than other children with friends, although they were less stereotyped about sex roles than other children, and were better adjusted than children with no friends on most measures. In contrast, children involved in opposite-sex friendship secondarily to same-sex friendship were as well adjusted socially as children with only same-sex friendships. These results suggest that children with cross-sex friends differ among themselves, depending on the primacy of the cross-sex relationship.

Affect↗
PubMed1996

Relational aggression, overt aggression, and friendship.

This study (n = 315 9-12-year-olds) was conducted to assess whether the social problems that relationally and overtly aggressive children typically experience in the peer group context are also exhibited in the dyadic, friendship context. The qualities of children's friendships (e.g., levels of intimacy) and of the importance of those qualities (e.g., the importance of intimacy) were assessed with self-report instruments adapted from past research. Results indicated that the friendships of relationally aggressive children were characterized by relatively high levels of intimacy, exclusivity/jealousy, and relational aggression within the friendship context. In contrast, the friendships of overtly aggressive children were characterized by engaging together in aggressive acts toward those outside the friendship. In addition, overtly aggressive children placed relatively high importance on these coalitional acts and on companionship with their friends. Implications for our understanding of aggressive children and for our knowledge of children's friendships are discussed.

Aggression↗
PubMed2005

The relationship between friendship factors and adolescent girls' body image concern, body dissatisfaction, and restrained eating.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined whether poorer friendship relations predict weight concerns and dietary restraint in adolescent girls. METHOD: Questionnaires were administered to 131 Year 9 and Year 10 girls to assess the relationship between acceptance by friends, perceived social support, friendship intimacy, and perceived impact of thinness on male (PITOF-M) and female (PITOF-F) friendships on the one hand, and body image concern, body dissatisfaction, and restrained eating on the other. RESULTS: Friendship variables contributed significantly to the prediction of body image concern, body dissatisfaction, and restrained eating. The largest unique contribution to prediction was from the PITOF-M. Poor acceptance by friends significantly predicted the PITOF-M and PITOF-F. Whereas heavier girls were more likely to believe being thinner would improve their friendships, they did not experience poorer friendships. DISCUSSION: Results suggest sociocultural risk factors for disordered eating and underline the importance of perceived peer affiliation on girls' body image concern and dieting.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

[Friendships in middle and older adulthood: the long arm of early childhood experiences].

In this study, direct associations between recalled parent-child relations and adult friendships and a mediation of this relationship by personality characteristics were examined. Furthermore, the contribution of the personality characteristics openness and agreeableness to friendship involvement in different phases of life was investigated. Data from 392 middle aged (43-46 years) and 345 older participants (61-64 years) in the first wave of the Interdisciplinary Longitudinal Study of Adult Development (ILSE) were used for structural equation modeling. Results show that the relation between recalled mother-child relationship and friendship involvement in old adults is mediated by agreeableness. Recalled father-child relationship was associated with friendships in both age groups, independent of personality characteristics. Data support the hypothesis that openness contributes to friendship involvement in middle age, while agreeableness contributes to friendship involvement in old age.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1993

Explorations of close friendship: a concept analysis.

Friendship is a meaningful and highly significant human activity. Every psychiatric nurse would acknowledge the value of friendship to mental health. But what is friendship? Development of theoretical understanding and research based interventions using friendship are hampered by inconsistent definitions of friendship. Using concept analysis, the author discusses the characteristics of close friendship and its distinguishing features. The definition created has potential implications for future theory development, research, and nursing care.

Adult↗