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PubMedDate not supplied

Effect of photoperiod on body weight gain, and daily energy intake and energy expenditure in Japanese quail (Coturnix c. japonica).

Effect of photoperiod and food duration on body weight gain, energy intake, energy expenditure, and sexual development were investigated in two strains of Japanese quail (Coturnix c. japonica), bred for meat (broilers) or egg production (layers), from 7 to 71 days of age. In a first experiment chicks were subjected to 18L:6D, 15L:9D, 12L:12D, 9L:15D, or 6L:18D, with ad lib food during the light period. In a second experiment birds were exposed to a long photoperiod (18L:6D or 15L:9D) with ad lib food during part of the light period (first 6 or 9 h, respectively). Longer photoperiods were associated with larger weight gains. In 18L:6D broilers total body weight gain was 262 g compared to 213 g in 6L:18D broilers. In layers, corresponding values were 182 and 131 g. This effect of photoperiod on weight gain was primarily due to the effect of photoperiod on food availability. The photoperiod below which detrimental effects on weight gain occurred was 9L:15D for both strains. Chicks subjected to 9L:15D or 6L:18D exploited crop filling to enhance energy intake. They also decreased nocturnal metabolic rates to a greater extent compared to levels during the light phase than chicks subjected to light periods of 12 h or more. Sexual maturation was stimulated by photoperiod. At the age of 71 days, eight out of nine females subjected to 18L:6D were producing eggs, but none of the 6L:18D females. It is concluded that changes in feeding behavior and energy expenditure shown under short photoperiods are part of a strategy that allow chicks to gain weight continuously.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Association of energy intake and energy balance with postmenopausal breast cancer in the prostate, lung, colorectal, and ovarian cancer screening trial.

Energy restriction remains one of the most effective ways known to prevent breast cancer in animal models. However, energy intake has not been consistently associated with risk of breast cancer in humans. In a prospective study, we assessed whether energy intake, body size, and physical activity each independently influence breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women and estimated the joint effect of combinations of these individual factors. As part of the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian Cancer Screening Trial, 38,660 women, ages 55 to 74 years and recruited from 10 centers in the United States during 1993 to 2001, were randomized to the screening arm of the trial. At baseline, the women completed a self-administered questionnaire, including a food frequency questionnaire. During follow-up from 1993 to 2003, 764 incident breast cancer cases were ascertained. Women in the highest quartile of energy intake (> or = 2,084 kcal/d) compared with those in the lowest quartile (<1,316 kcal/d) had a significantly increased risk for breast cancer [multivariate relative risk (RR), 1.25; 95% confidence interval (95% CI), 1.02-1.53; P(trend continuous) = 0.03]. Current body mass index (BMI) was also positively and significantly associated with risk (multivariate RR comparing >30 kg/m2 with <22.5 kg/m2, 1.35; 95% CI, 1.06-1.70; P(trend) = 0.01). Women with > or = 4 hours/wk of vigorous recreational physical activity had a significantly reduced risk of breast cancer compared with those who reported no recreational physical activity (multivariate RR, 0.78; 95% CI, 0.60-0.99; P(trend) = 0.15). None of these associations with individual energy balance measures was substantially confounded by the other two measures. When we estimated the joint effect of all three variables, women with the most unfavorable energy balance (the highest energy intake, highest BMI, and least physical activity) had twice the risk (RR, 2.10; 95% CI, 1.27-3.45) of women with the most favorable energy balance (the lowest energy intake, lowest BMI, and most physical activity). Although our estimates of absolute energy intake, based on a food frequency questionnaire, are imperfect, these results suggest that energy intake, in addition to BMI and physical activity may be independently associated with breast cancer risk. In addition, these three aspects of energy balance may act jointly in determining breast cancer risk.

Aged↗
PubMed1992

Predictions of energy intake and energy allowance of patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy and their validity.

Patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy are so malnourished that energy supplementation is crucial. Their degree of energy deficiency was assessed as difference between their energy intake and their energy allowance, which were deduced from easily measured parameters. A significant, negative relationship was found between the basal metabolic rate (BMR) (Y, %, BMR/standard BMR) and body weight (X, %, body weight/standard body weight) in the patients, from which the formula for the BMR was deduced to be Y = -1.116X + 174.5 (n = 202, r = -0.72, p less than 0.001). Thus, it is possible to estimate the energy allowance for individual patients by a factorial procedure from the presumed BMR and a factor for physical activity. In addition, their energy intake was calculated from a constant protein-energy % (14.6%) in their diet and nitrogen intake which was deduced from a significant positive correlation between their nitrogen intake (Y, mg/kg/day) and their nitrogen excretion in 24 h urine samples (X, mg/kg/day). This correlation conformed to the equation Y = 1.053X + 32.4 (n = 267, r = +0.76, p less than 0.001). The validities of the above predictions for energy intake and allowance were examined by plotting the degree of energy deficiency (% ratio of presumed intake/presumed allowance) against the concentrations of retinal binding protein, prealbumin and transferrin in the serum, because rapid turnover proteins are sensitive to energy deficiency. Significant positive correlations were obtained with both variables, suggesting that these predictions were valid.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Energy balance in a respiration chamber: individual adjustment of energy intake to energy expenditure.

OBJECTIVES: In studies on substrate utilization, a state of energy balance is often required. Energy requirements are based on measured or calculated sleeping metabolic rate (SMR) or basal metabolic rate (BMR). A study was performed to compare this protocol with adjustment of energy intake (EI) to 24 h energy expenditure (24 h EE). DESIGN: In part one, eight subjects spent one night and the subsequent three days in a respiration chamber. On day 1 EI was set at 1.5*SMR. On day 2 and 3 EI was set at 24 h EE of day 1. In part two of the study, an activity protocol was provided while staying in the chamber. 12 subjects spent one night and the subsequent two days in the respiration chamber. On day 1 EI was set at 1.55*SMR and on day 2 EI was set at 24 h EE of day 1. MEASUREMENTS: Sleeping metabolic rate, diet induced thermogenesis, physical activity index and 24 h expenditure were measured using a respiration chamber. SUBJECTS: Eight healthy normal-weight females (age: 22 +/- 3, BMI: 20.9 +/- 1.8) in part one and twelve healthy normal-weight males and females (age: 26 +/- 2, BMI: 21.4 +/- 0.5) in part two of the study. RESULTS: Physical activity index (PAI = 24 h EE/SMR) on day 1 (part 1) was 1.55 +/- 0.04, close to the predicted value of 1.5, but between-subject variation was large (range: 1.39-1.68). Absolute deviation from energy balance reduced significantly from 1.35 +/- 0.30 MJ/d on day 1 to 0.51 +/- 0.21 and 0.31 +/- 0.10 MJ/d on day 2 and 3 respectively (P < 0.05). The latter can be considered as near to energy balance. With the activity protocol (part 2) absolute deviation from energy balance reduced significantly from 0.93 +/- 0.20 MJ/d on day 1 to 0.27 +/- 0.11 MJ/d on day 2 (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: A three day stay in the chamber allows adjustment of energy intake to energy expenditure, in this way achieving a state close to energy balance. When prescribing an activity protocol the same results can be obtained within two days.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1995

Control of energy intake by energy metabolism.

Eating behavior is controlled by signals that are generated in the postabsorptive metabolism of energy-yielding substrates. Recent work indicates that an event common to the metabolism of glucose and fat provides such a signal. Evidence suggests that eating behavior is triggered by a signal that is tied to hepatic ATP concentrations and is carried from the liver to brain via afferents in the vagus nerve. This metabolic control of eating behavior may link mechanisms of energy storage and expenditure to energy intake. Changes in energy intake associated with alterations in energy expenditure can be viewed as a response to a shift in the partitioning of fuels, which affects the oxidative metabolic pathways that generate the signal controlling eating behavior.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Exercise and the regulation of energy intake.

Energy balance is the resultant of ingested calories and energy expenditure and is generally maintained within narrow limits over prolonged periods. Exercise leads to an increase in energy expenditure which is, in the long-term, counteracted by increased energy intake. Evidence for this comes from a study in voluntarily running female rats that increased their daily food intake to 130% of the sedentary controls. In contrast, when considered on a short-term basis, exercise will suppress food intake to prevent a potentially dangerous disruption of energy substrate homeostasis. Studies in permanently cannulated rats submitted to a test meal and 2 hrs swimming reveal that both food intake and exercise lead to increases in glucose and free fatty acid (FFA) levels in the blood. These changes in glucose and FFA, combined with the exercise-induced alteration in among others glucagon, corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) and body temperature, may lead to the short-term anorexic effect of exercise.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

[Energy requirements of young female cattle. 5. Energy intake and energy expenditure].

From 6 experiments dealing with the development of young female cattle, partly from calf to calving, 660 metabolism periods were evaluated as to energy intake, live weight gain (LWG) and energy expenditure. Growth intensity was deliberately regulated through energy intake. In the experiment with the highest growth rate the average LWG was greater than 850 g/animal and day and in the experiment with the lowest growth rate at about 550 g/animal and day. Energy expenditure increased from 15 MJ net energy fatcattle/kg LWG at a live weight of 50 kg to 50-80 MJ NEFcattle/kg LWG in clear dependence on growth intensity. Comparative examinations of energy intake and energy requirement, estimated with equations forming the basis of recommendations for the energy supply of young female cattle in the framework of the GDR system of feed evaluation, lead to the conclusion that a new concept of identifying the energy requirement of young female cattle has to be developed.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Energy intake and energy expenditure in prepubertal males with asthma.

This study aimed to measure energy intake (EI) and total energy expenditure (TEE) of asthmatic males and to validate diet history as a method of estimating their energy requirements. EI was assessed by dietary history and TEE by the heart-rate monitoring method in a group of asthmatic and nonasthmatic males. Resting energy expenditure (REE) adjusted for fat-free mass was higher in asthmatic than in nonasthmatic males (5,037 versus 4,839 kJ x day(-1), p<0.05). TEE (93+/-1.8 versus 8.4+/-1.4 MJ x day(-1), respectively; p=NS) and EI (9.2+/-15 versus 8.8+/-15 MJ x day(-1), respectively, p=NS) were not statistically different in asthmatic and nonasthmatic male. EI was not statistically different from TEE in both groups of males. Asthmatic males showed an acceptable agreement between TEE and EI at the individual level (range of agreement: -3.2 to 2.9 MJ x day(-1)), and a good agreement at the group level (95% confidence interval for the bias, - 1.1 to 0.8 MJ x day(-1)). Males with mild-to-moderate asthma have a higher metabolic activity per unit fat-free mass than nonasthmatic males. This increased requirement is apparently well compensated by an adequate energy intake. Diet history is a suitable method for estimating energy requirements in males with mild-to-moderate asthma.

Anthropometry↗
PubMed1999

Effects of level of energy intake and energy demand on growth hormone, insulin, and metabolites in Targhee and Suffolk ewes.

Yearling ewes (n = 32) were used in a 2x2x2 factorial experiment to determine effects of breed (Targhee vs. Suffolk), energy intake (1x vs. 3x NEm requirements, and physiological status (nonpregnant, nonlactating vs. lactating) on serum GH, insulin, NEFA, glucose, and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) concentrations. Blood collections were made in two periods that began 21 and 32 d after ewes lambed. Lactating ewes had more GH peaks (P<.10), higher (P<.01) mean GH concentration, and greater (P<.01) area under the GH curve (AUC) than nonlactating ewes. The AUC was greater (P<.01) in ewes fed 1x NEm than in ewes fed 3x NEm. Energy intake had no effect on serum GH before feeding (P>.23) when evaluated within physiological statuses. After feeding, GH concentrations were greater (P<.10) for ewes fed 1x NEm than for those fed 3x NEm. Insulin and glucose did not differ (P>.23) between energy intake levels. Insulin and glucose were greater (P<.001) in nonlactating than in lactating ewes when evaluated within breed. Lactating and Targhee ewes fed 1x NEm had greater (P<.001) NEFA concentration than nonlactating and Targhee ewes fed 3x NEm, respectively. Ewes fed 3x NEm and Targhee ewes had greater (P<.005) BUN concentrations than ewes fed 1x NEm and Suffolk ewes, respectively. Physiological status seems to play a more important role in the regulation of GH than does energy intake. Higher BUN concentrations in Targhee than in Suffolk ewes demonstrates one metabolic event that distinguishes a breed's adaptation to the environment in which it originated.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Markers of the validity of reported energy intake.

Energy intake (EI) is the foundation of the diet, because all other nutrients must be provided within the quantity of food needed to fulfill the energy requirement. Thus if total EI is underestimated, it is probable that the intakes of other nutrients are also underestimated. Under conditions of weight stability, EI equals energy expenditure (EE). Because at the group level weight may be regarded as stable in the timescale of a dietary assessment, the validity of reported EI can be evaluated by comparing it with either measured EE or an estimate of the energy requirement of the population. This paper provides the first comprehensive review of studies in which EI was reported and EE was measured using the doubly labeled water technique. These conclusively demonstrate widespread bias to the underestimation of EI. Because energy requirements of populations or individuals can be conveniently expressed as multiples of the basal metabolic rate (BMR), EE:BMR, reported EI may also be expressed as EI:BMR for comparison. Values of EI:BMR falling below the 95% confidence limit of agreement between these two measures signify the presence of underreporting. A formula for calculating the lower 95% confidence limit was proposed by Goldberg et al. (the Goldberg cutoff). It has been used by numerous authors to identify individual underreporters in different dietary databases to explore the variables associated with underreporting. These studies are also comprehensively reviewed. They explore the characteristics of underreporters and the biases in estimating nutrient intake and in describing meal patterns associated with underreporting. This review also examines some of the problems for the interpretation of data introduced by underreporting and particularly by variable underreporting across subjects. Future directions for research are identified.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Identification of a biochemical link between energy intake and energy expenditure.

Obesity is the result of an imbalance between energy intake and energy expenditure. Using high-density DNA microarrays and Northern analyses, we demonstrated that the activation of a nutrient-sensing pathway, the hexosamine biosynthesis pathway (HBP), rapidly decreased the expression of a cluster of nuclear-encoded mitochondrial genes involved in skeletal muscle oxidative phosphorylation. Conversely, the expression of uncoupling protein-1 and of the same mitochondrial genes was increased in brown adipose tissue. Most important, these transcriptional changes were accompanied by a marked decrease in whole-body energy expenditure. Short-term overfeeding replicated this transcriptional pattern, suggesting that this adaptation to nutrient abundance occurs under physiological conditions. Thus, the activation of the HBP by nutrients represents a biochemical link between nutrient availability, mitochondrial proteins, and energy expenditure, and it is likely to play an important role in the regulation of energy balance.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Energy intake, not energy output, is a determinant of body size in infants.

BACKGROUND: It has been proposed that the primary determinants of body weight at 1 y of age are genetic background, as represented by parental obesity, and low total energy expenditure. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to determine the relative contributions of genetic background and energy intake and expenditure as determinants of body weight at 1 y of age. DESIGN: Forty infants of obese and 38 infants of lean mothers, half boys and half girls, were assessed at 3 mo of age for 10 risk factors for obesity: sex, risk group (obese or nonobese mothers), maternal and paternal body mass index, body weight, feeding mode (breast, bottle, or both), 3-d energy intake, nutritive sucking behavior during a test meal, total energy expenditure, sleeping energy expenditure, and interactions among them. RESULTS: The only difference between risk groups at baseline was that the high-risk group sucked more vigorously during the test meal. Four measures accounted for 62% of the variability in weight at 12 mo: 3-mo weight (41%, P = 0.0001), nutritive sucking behavior (9%, P = 0.0002), 3-d food intake (8%, P = 0.0002), and male sex (3%, P = 0.05). Food intake and sucking behavior at 3 mo accounted for similar amounts of variability in weight-for-length, body fat, fat-free mass, and skinfold thickness at 12 mo. Contrary to expectations, neither total nor sleeping energy expenditure at 3 mo nor maternal obesity contributed to measures of body size at 12 mo. CONCLUSIONS: Energy intake contributes significantly to measures of body weight and composition at 1 y of age; parental obesity and energy expenditure do not.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Major gene effect on body mass index: the role of energy intake and energy expenditure.

The evidence for a major gene for body mass index (BMI) was investigated using complex segregation analysis (POINTER) in 1691 individuals belonging to 432 nuclear families residing in the Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh, India. Since the BMI is significantly correlated with energy intake (EI) and energy expenditure of activity (EEA), the effects of each were removed from the BMI using regression analysis, and the segregation analysis was repeated on the energy-adjusted BMI. For BMI, a putative major locus could not be ruled out, and the effect (q = 0.25, accounting for 37% of the phenotypic variance) was remarkably similar to that reported in Western populations. After adjusting the BMI for EI and EEA, however, no evidence in support of a major gene could be observed, suggesting either that EI and EEA mediate the expression of the major gene effect on BMI, or that the same major gene may influence both traits. The pleiotropy hypothesis was further explored using a simple bivariate familial correlation model, in which the significance of familial cross-trait correlations (e.g., BMI in parents with BMI as predicted from the energy variables in the offspring) was examined. The cross-trait resemblance between the two measures was significant for all biological relatives, verifying the presence of shared heritable determinants (i.e., the same gene[s] and/or familial environments) accounting for 58% of the covariation. The significant cross-trait spouse correlations further suggested that at least part of the cross-trait resemblance may be due to shared environmental factors. Therefore, we conclude that there is strong evidence for shared genetic effects between BMI and the energy variables.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Energy intake and energy expenditure of elite cyclists during preseason training.

In the last years, the interest in sport nutrition has increased. The purpose of this study was to quantify the nutritional status of eleven cyclists of a professional team (age: 28.7+/-4.2 yr; height: 181.0+/-4.2 cm; weight: 71.0+/-5.2 kg; body fat: 10.2+/-2.4%), during basic pre-season training. The athletes trained on five days (160 km per day) and respected one rest-day (33 km). The food of the cyclists, which was chosen by the riders themselves, was weighed and recorded for six days, the protocols were analysed through the PRODI 4.3 EXPERT database. The daily energy intake which averaged 13.5 MJ (59% carbohydrates, 19% proteins, and 21% fat), was compared to the mean daily consumption of energy (19.1 MJ), which was calculated from the basal metabolic rate and the energy turnover while training (directly measured through the SRM Training system). The daily energy expenditure was 30% higher than the daily energy intake. The analysis of the food diary showed that these experienced riders composed a carbohydrate-rich and low-fat diet by themselves as recommended for high-performance endurance athletes. When compared to nutritional guidelines, the composition of the diet in the present study can be considered as adequate.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Validation of a pre-coded food diary used among 13-year-olds: comparison of energy intake with energy expenditure.

OBJECTIVE: To validate energy intake (EI) estimated from pre-coded food diaries against energy expenditure (EE) measured with a validated position-and-movement monitor (ActiReg) in groups of 13-year-old Norwegian schoolchildren. DESIGN: Two studies were conducted. In study 1 the monitoring period was 4 days; participants recorded their food intake for four consecutive weekdays using food diaries and wore the ActiReg during the same period. In study 2 the monitoring period was 7 days; participants recorded their food intake for four consecutive days but wore the ActiReg for a whole week. SETTINGS: Participants were recruited from grade 8 in a school in and one outside Oslo (Norway). SUBJECTS: Forty-one and 31 participants from study 1 and 2, respectively, completed the study. RESULTS: The group average EI was 34% lower than the measured EE in study 1 and 24% lower in study 2. The width of the 95% confidence limits of agreement in a Bland-Altman plot for EI and EE varied from -0.2 MJ to 8.2 MJ in study 1 and from -2.3 MJ to 6.9 MJ in study 2. The Pearson correlation coefficients between reported energy intake and expenditure were 0.47 (P=0.002) in study 1 and 0.74 (P<0.001) in study 2. CONCLUSION: The data showed that there was substantial variability in the accuracy of the food diary at the individual level. Furthermore, the diary underestimated the average energy intake. The ability of the food diary to rank individuals according to energy intake was found to be good in one of the studies and moderate in the other.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Effect of photoperiod on body mass, and daily energy intake and energy expenditure in young rats.

In this experiment we investigate the effect of photoperiod on locomotor activity, body mass, food intake, growth efficiency (relationship between body mass change and food intake), energy expenditure, and body composition in growing Wistar rats. Two groups of animals were subjected to either a long, LD 18:6 (n = 8) or short photoperiod, LD 6:18 (n = 7), during a period of 190 days after weaning. Activity, body mass, food intake, and energy expenditure were measured during the study, as well as body composition at the end of the experiment. We show that growing rats exposed to short photoperiod (a) have a lower rate of weight gain, (b) have similar energy intakes, (c) have lower growth efficiency, (d) have lower daily energy expenditure and resting metabolic rate, and (e) gain less lean body mass than those exposed to long photoperiods. We suggest that the distribution of energy expenditure and food intake over the total 24-h cycle may be responsible for the differences in body weight gain between the two photoperiods.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1980

Effects of manipulating dietary protein and energy intake on energy balance and thermogenesis in the pig.

Weight maintenance was achieved by feeding either restricted amounts of a high-protein diet (HP) or ad libitum amounts of low-protein diet (LP) to 6 and 20 kp pigs for up to 42 days. In all cases, LP animals consumed approximately three times as much energy as the HP animals but in the 20-kp pigs, almost all (70%) of this excess was deposited in the carcass as fat. In 6-kg pigs fed the LP diet, changes in body energy content accounted for only a small fraction (27%) of the total energy intake; a large difference in energy expenditure was seen between these animals and the HP group, which was attributed to differences in dietary-induced thermogenesis. Six-kilogram LP pigs showed elevated plasma triiodothyronine levels and hepatic mitochondrial alpha-glycerophosphate dehydrogenase activity and an enhanced sensitivity to the in vitro lipolytic effects of norephinephrine (NE) on adipose tissue. These changes are similar to those observed in rats exhibiting dietary-induced thermogenesis and the relevance of these findings to the increased heat production of LP pigs is discussed.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1994

Effects of age of introduction of complementary foods on infant breast milk intake, total energy intake, and growth: a randomised intervention study in Honduras.

In developing countries, the age at which breastfed infants are first given complementary foods is of public health importance because of the risk of diarrhoeal disease from contaminated weaning foods, and the potential risk of growth faltering if foods are inappropriately delayed. To evaluate whether there are any advantage of complementary feeding prior to 6 months, low-income primiparous mothers who had exclusively breastfed for 4 months were randomly assigned to one of 3 groups: continued exclusive breastfeeding to 6 months (EBF) (n = 50); introduction of complementary foods at 4 months with ad libitum nursing from 4-6 months (SF) (n = 47); and introduction of complementary foods at 4 months, with maintenance of baseline nursing frequency from 4-6 months (SF-M) (n = 44). Baby foods in jars were provided to the SF and SF-M groups from 4 to 6 months. Subjects were visited weekly and provided with lactation guidance; at 4, 5, and 6 months measurements were made of infant intake and breast milk composition. At 4 months, breast milk intake averaged 797 (139) g per day (no difference among groups). Between 4 and 6 months, breast milk intake was unchanged in EBF infants (+6) but decreased in the SF (-103), and SF-M (-62) groups (p < 0.001). Change in total energy intake (including solid foods) and infant weight and length gain did not differ significantly between groups. Weight and length gain from 4-6 months were comparable to those of breastfed infants in an affluent USA population. The results indicate that breastfed infants self-regulate their total energy intake when other foods are introduced. As a result, there is no advantage in introducing complementary foods before 6 months in this population, whereas there may be disadvantages if there is increased exposure to contaminated weaning foods.

Adult↗