PubMed · 13701845
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U FREY. 1960-07-30. [Doping].. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13701845/
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In recent years, some international sports federations have introduced blood testing procedures that can lead to suspension from competition for athletes whose haematologic values exceed certain established limits. In 1994 the International Biathlon Union initiated a three-phase blood testing program to safeguard athletes' health and ensure fair competition. The first phase, lasting three years, was aimed at measuring the haematocrit values of biathletes in order to determine statistically acceptable limits for participation in competition. The second phase, lasting four years, consisted of pre-race testing for an increasing number of athletes and suspension from competition for those whose haematocrit values exceeded 52 % for males and 48 % for females. The results of this second phase (third phase now in progress) are reported. Progressive increases have been made in the numbers of countries examined, athletes tested, and tests performed. This retrospective study reveals a reassuring trend in average values for haematocrit and haemoglobin in the entire study population, a minimal number of athletes with excessive values and a consequent low risk of false positive results, an acceptable incidence of relatively high values (50 % for males and 45 % for females), and constant non-elevated haematological profiles for elite athletes. The variability in individual haematocrit levels among all biathletes with a minimum of four observations during the four-year period is also evaluated and discussed.
OBJECTIVE: There is widespread public concern about fairness in sports. Blood doping undermines fairness and places athletes' health at risk. The purpose of this study was to examine the prevalence of abnormal hematologic profiles in elite cross-country skiers, which may indicate a high probability of blood doping. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Samples were obtained as part of routine International Ski Federation blood testing procedures from participants at the World Ski Championships. Sixty-eight percent of all skiers and 92% of those finishing in the top 10 places were tested. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Using flow cytometry, we analyzed erythrocyte and reticulocyte indices. Reference values were from the 1989 Nordic Ski World Championships data set and the International Olympic Committee Erythropoietin 2000 project. RESULTS: Of the skiers tested and finishing within the top 50 places in the competitions, 17% had "highly abnormal" hematologic profiles, 19% had "abnormal" values, and 64% were normal. Fifty percent of medal winners and 33% of those finishing from 4th to 10th place had highly abnormal hematologic profiles. In contrast, only 3% of skiers finishing from 41st to 50th place had highly abnormal values. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that blood doping is both prevalent and effective in cross-country ski racing, and current testing programs for blood doping are ineffective. It is unlikely that blood doping is less common in other endurance sports. Ramifications of doping affect not only elite athletes who may feel compelled to risk their health but also the general population, particularly young people.
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