[Not Available].

This study is to be regarded as a contribution to interdisciplinary research and represents an attempt to clarify the question of whether and to what extent concepts that have been developed in the field of theoretical biology and which have a high degree of importance here can also be applied to sociological phenomena. In particular it is intended to examine the question of whether the civilizing process can be adequately treated using the evolutionary concept of "Constraints". This term, which has only recently been introduced into the discussion by PERE ALBERCH as an evolutionary factor, comprises all of the internal factors which influence the further course of the evolution of a system by ruling out certain possibilities, thus showing a limiting effect. Although "Constraints" go beyond the scope of Darwinian teachings about selection by the environment, they are increasingly accepted today as evolution factors by well-known exponents of Darwinian theory (cf. MAYNARD-SMITH 1985). The increase in popularity of "constraints" is also an expression of the rediscovery of a phenomenon which was originally expressed by RUPERT RIEDL and was introduced by him into German literature in the seventies. In the clarification of this question, special reference is made to the "theory of the civilizing process" by NORBERT ELIAS, since here a highly respected scholar has presented an important sociological theory. Moreover, there is such good scientific access to ELIAS because this author exemplifies his theses in historical terms and thus to a certain extent makes his explanations verifiable in scientific terms. In the treatment of this topic, the central terms and theses of ELIAS will be presented from the considerable scope of his work, and then illustrated with the help of several selected historical case studies. Furthermore, reference will be made at the relevant points to parallels and analogies which the works of ELIAS have to other, predominantly system-theoretical concepts of evolution and which cause it to appear compatible to the latter.

Civilization↗

PubMed2004

Infectious diseases in the 21st century: old challenges and new opportunities.

Infectious diseases are the confrontation of two worlds, the microbial world and the world of human physiology. Although these two worlds are as a whole governed by the same laws of nature, they show substantial differences: the microbiological world is 1000 times older, and was initiated by the development of the archaea, the 'living organisms of the extreme': its biomass and its diversity are immense - two to three billion species or 60% of the total biomass of the planet. The number of pathogens that adapted to man, however, is extremely limited - barely 1000. Thus, over billions of years, an evolution of the microbial world took place from 'early life', characterized by chemosynthesis, to the 'modern pathogens', and entailed a dramatic 'concentration' of life conditions and an adaptation towards a narrow range of requirements - those allowing survival in the human body. Within the last two centuries, these two slowly evolving systems, microbial life and human life, were profoundly modified in an unprecedented manner by a third player, human civilization, with its global impact on the environment through physical, chemical, societal, and climatic determinants. An appreciation of the evolution of infectious diseases in the 21st century and of the development of new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies therefore requires a full understanding of these three domains: human physiology, microbiology, and the environment. This review will put major emphasis on the environmental role of civilization on infectious diseases before considering new opportunities to combat them through novel and creative solutions.

Civilization↗