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PubMed2026

Comparative Transcriptomic Analyses Identify Candidate Genes for Convergent Reproductive Shifts in a Bimodal Viviparous Amphibian.

Shifts in reproductive mode represent key evolutionary innovations that shape species' life histories and evolutionary trajectories. Species showing bimodal reproductive strategies with multiple independent origins offer a rare opportunity to gain insights into the adaptive processes and mechanisms underlying convergent traits. The fire salamander, Salamandra salamandra, is the only amphibian exhibiting intraspecific variation in reproductive mode across multiple independent reproductive shifts, enabling investigation of the transition between larviparity (females give birth to aquatic larvae) and pueriparity (females give birth to fully developed terrestrial juveniles) within a single species and across different timescales. Pueriparity is an adaptive innovation that skips the aquatic larval stage, allowing individuals to exploit habitats with no available water bodies. The fire salamander is larviparous across most of its range, but pueriparity has evolved independently at least three times: once in the early Pleistocene within S. s. bernardezi in the mountains of northern Spain, and more recently on two land-bridge islands (NW Spain) inhabited by S. s. gallaica. To identify candidate genes associated with these distinct reproductive modes, we compared gene expression profiles of the uterus and oviduct of pregnant females across two independent evolutionary transitions using RNA-sequencing. We detected shared changes in maternal gene expression among pueriparous S. s. bernardezi and S. s. gallaica relative to their larviparous counterparts, in addition to differences unique to each independent evolutionary transition. Functional enrichment analyses indicated that differentially expressed genes were associated with reproductive timing, angiogenesis, and maternal signalling, consistent with the phenotypic differences observed in the uterine environment and embryonic development between the two reproductive modes. This study represents an important first step towards understanding the genomic basis of the evolution of pueriparity in a remarkable bimodal reproductive system, and provides transcriptomic resources and candidate genes for future research into the genomic architecture underlying this poorly understood adaptive trait.

Animals↗

PubMed2026

Comprehensive analysis of differentially expressed mRNAs, lncRNAs, and miRNAs involved in ovarian differentiation and development in Qihe gibel carp (Carassius gibelio var. Qihe).

Qihe gibel carp (Carassius gibelio var. Qihe) exhibits diverse reproductive modes including gynogenesis and sexual reproduction, yet the molecular mechanisms of ovarian differentiation remain poorly understood. Ovarian tissues at 20, 30, and 60 days after hatching (dah), representing key stages covering early ovarian differentiation and primary oocyte growth, were subjected to whole-transcriptome sequencing. A total of 27,259 mRNAs, 2622 lncRNAs, and 2467 miRNAs were differentially expressed. Cell cycle, transcription, translation, and DNA replication pathways were significantly upregulated from 20 to 60 dah. Oocyte meiosis was enriched from 20 and 30 dah, whereas metabolic pathways (lipid, carbohydrate, and nucleotide metabolism) were enriched from 30 to 60 dah, indicating sequential progression from meiosis initiation to primary oocyte growth with nutrient synthesis. Hub lncRNAs and key ceRNA networks (e.g., MSTRG.28669.5-miR-221-ccnb2) were identified. This study provides the first comprehensive characterization of ncRNA-mediated regulation and ceRNA networks during ovarian development in Qihe gibel carp, establishing a foundation for understanding ovarian differentiation in this species.

Animals↗

PubMed2026

Reproduction on the Rocks: Life History of a Freshwater Macrobioeroding Bivalve.

Macrobioerosion, the excavation and removal of consolidated mineral substrates by macrofauna, is well established in marine systems, where macrobioeroders drive carbonate cycling, sediment production and habitat formation. In freshwater ecosystems, however, it has been documented in only a small number of invertebrate taxa and remains a poorly resolved ecological process. Among these, the teredinid shipworm Lithoredo abatanica represents a remarkable departure from the wood-boring ecology of its family, having evolved to excavate and ingest limestone in fresh water. Despite this remarkable ecological transition, its reproductive biology and life history remain unknown. Here, we investigate the reproductive mode and life history strategy of this species using population size structure, in situ observations of siphonal morphology, and sperm morphometrics. We show that L. abatanica reaches exceptional dimensions, with measured body lengths exceeding 100 mm, one intact empty burrow exceeding 200 mm and in-water observations indicating burrows possibly exceeding 500 mm, establishing it as the largest known freshwater macrobioeroder. Its large size and dense aggregations indicate considerable capacity for local rock breakdown and habitat modification within the Abatan River system (Bohol, Philippines). Recently settled juveniles (< 10 mm) alongside reproductively mature individuals indicate ongoing recruitment. The morphology of the siphons and calcareous tube appears to preclude direct sperm transfer via pseudocopulation, while sperm morphometrics are consistent with external fertilisation. Together, these findings indicate that L. abatanica reproduces via broadcast spawning with external fertilisation and likely possesses a planktotrophic larval phase. This raises a fundamental question: how does a broadcast-spawning species with planktotrophic larvae maintain populations up to 15 km upstream in a flowing freshwater river subject to persistent downstream advection? By resolving the life history of the largest known freshwater macrobioeroder, this study provides critical insight into the persistence, dispersal and ecological role of a globally unique riverine ecosystem engineer.

broadcast spawning↗

PubMed2025

One mother for two species via obligate cross-species cloning in ants.

Living organisms are assumed to produce same-species offspring1,2. Here, we report a shift from this norm in Messor ibericus, an ant that lays individuals from two distinct species. In this life cycle, females must clone males of another species because they require their sperm to produce the worker caste. As a result, males from the same mother exhibit distinct genomes and morphologies, as they belong to species that diverged over 5 million years ago. The evolutionary history of this system appears as sexual parasitism3 that evolved into a natural case of cross-species cloning4,5, resulting in the maintenance of a male-only lineage cloned through distinct species' ova. We term females exhibiting this reproductive mode as xenoparous, meaning they give birth to other species as part of their life cycle.

Animals↗

PubMed2025

Comparative Genomics of Sex-Determination-Related Genes Reveals Shared Evolutionary Patterns Between Bivalves and Mammals, but Not Fruit Flies.

The molecular basis of sex determination (SD), while being extensively studied in model organisms, remains poorly understood in many animal groups. Bivalves, a diverse class of molluscs with a variety of reproductive modes, represent an ideal yet challenging clade for investigating SD and the evolution of sexual systems. However, the absence of a comprehensive framework has limited progress in this field, particularly regarding the study of sex-determination-related genes (SRGs). In this study, we performed a genome-wide sequence evolutionary analysis of the Dmrt, Sox and Fox gene families in more than 40 bivalve species. For the first time, we provide an extensive and phylogenetically aware dataset of these SRGs, and we find support for the hypothesis that Dmrt-1L and Sox-H may act as primary sex-determining genes by showing their high levels of sequence diversity within the bivalve genomic context. To validate our findings, we studied the same gene families in two well-characterised systems, mammals and fruit flies (genus Drosophila). In the former, we found that the male sex-determining gene Sry exhibits a pattern of amino acid sequence diversity similar to that of Dmrt-1L and Sox-H in bivalves, consistent with its role as master SD regulator. In contrast, no such pattern was observed among genes of the fruit fly SD cascade, which is controlled by a chromosomic mechanism. Overall, our findings highlight similarities in the sequence evolution of some mammal and bivalve SRGs, possibly driven by a comparable architecture of SD cascades. This work underscores once again the importance of employing a comparative approach when investigating understudied and non-model systems.

Animals↗

PubMed2015

Impermanence of bacterial clones.

Bacteria reproduce asexually and pass on a single genome copied from the parent, a reproductive mode that assures the clonal descent of progeny; however, a truly clonal bacterial species is extremely rare. The signal of clonality can be interrupted by gene uptake and exchange, initiating homologous recombination that results in the unique sequence of one clone being incorporated into another. Because recombination occurs sporadically and on local scales, these events are often difficult to recognize, even when considering large samples of completely sequenced genomes. Moreover, several processes can produce the appearance of clonality in populations that undergo frequent recombination. The rates and consequences of recombination have been studied in Escherichia coli for over 40 y, and, during this time, there have been several shifting views of its clonal status, population structure, and rates of gene exchange. We reexamine the studies and retrace the evolution of the methods that have assessed the extent of DNA flux, largely focusing on its impact on the E. coli genome.

Clone Cells↗

PubMed2026

Resolving taxonomic complexity in the genus Boechera (Brassicaceae) using the Boechera Microsatellite Website: a case study of the rare triploid B. bodiensis.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The genus Boechera (rock cress) comprises ∼75 sexual diploid taxa and >355 genetically distinct hybrid lineages, many of which reproduce asexually through apomixis. This complex reproductive landscape poses substantial challenges for taxonomy, similar to those encountered in genera such as Taraxacum, Hieracium, Poa and Rubus. The Boechera Microsatellite Website (BMW) offers an extensive database and analytical tools that are proving instrumental in resolving these difficulties. Here, we demonstrate the utility of the BMW through analysis of Boechera bodiensis, a rare and poorly understood species endemic to the western Great Basin of the USA. METHODS: First described as Arabis bodiensis by Rollins in 1982, this taxon is sparsely represented in herbaria and has long been considered a candidate for protection under the Endangered Species Act. However, its taxonomic identity has remained uncertain owing to morphological similarities with other 'Arabis' (Boechera) taxa. We integrate microsatellite DNA data from the BMW with morphological analyses to provide a clearer understanding of the taxonomic status, distribution and evolutionary origins of B. bodiensis. KEY RESULTS: Pollen studies reveal that B. bodiensis is a diplosporous apomict. Microsatellite genotyping of the holotype confirms it to be triploid, containing three subgenomes derived from Boechera cobrensis, B. fernaldiana and B. sparsiflora. Expanded microsatellite surveys detect this triploid genotype at 22 additional sites, primarily in Mono County, CA, USA. Morphological analyses of genetically verified specimens identify a consistent set of characters that distinguish B. bodiensis from co-occurring congeners. CONCLUSIONS: The BMW enables high-resolution analyses of genome composition, reproductive mode and hybrid origins, making it a powerful tool for resolving taxonomic complexity in Boechera. Our case study of B. bodiensis highlights the effectiveness of combining molecular and morphological data to clarify species boundaries, inform conservation assessments and refine nomenclatural understanding in this notoriously difficult genus.

Microsatellite Repeats↗

PubMed2026

Helitrons are enriched in lichenized fungi with long generation lengths and small distribution sizes.

Transposable elements have the potential to drive genome evolution by introducing mutations and causing structural instability and chromosomal rearrangements, particularly under conditions like environmental or genetic stress. In this study, we generated 18 new long-read-based metagenomically assembled reference genomes for lichenized fungi, which form obligate mutualistic symbioses with algae or cyanobacteria. We used the new genomes and 10 publicly available genomes to investigate the relationships between species traits (i.e. dominant reproductive mode, distribution size, and generation length) and the abundance and spatial distribution of transposable elements using a phylogenetic comparative framework. We found that species with smaller distribution sizes and longer generation lengths had a higher genomic DNA transposon load. Specifically, their genomes were enriched with Rolling Circle transposons, which contradict previous research that has identified high proportions of retrotransposons in rare species. Disproportionate distributions of transposable elements in rare and range-restricted species may disrupt genomic stability, decrease fitness, and be reflective of species experiencing a greater degree of stress. Conversely, greater transposable element activity may be an important source of novel genetic diversity in isolated populations with limited gene flow. Further research is needed to understand the potential mechanisms driving transposable element proliferation in rare species' genomes and if transposable element content is predictive of increased extinction risk.

DNA Transposable Elements↗

PubMed2026

The evolutionary origins of the parthenogenetic lizard Aspidoscelis tesselatus.

Most vertebrate species reproduce sexually. The whiptail lizards (Aspidoscelis) are a notable exception; at least 11 of the 45 recognized species are parthenogenetic. Here, we focus on one such species (Aspidoscelis tesselatus) as a case study to understand how parthenogenetic species originate and evolve. Using genome-wide sequence data and ecological niche modelling, we find that A. tesselatus likely arose from a single hybrid speciation event between A. scalaris and A. marmoratus less than 500,000 years ago. The geographic ranges of A. tesselatus and its parental species overlap currently, and niche modelling shows this zone of sympatry was even broader during the period when A. tesselatus likely formed. We additionally show evidence that A. tesselatus has a dynamic genome post-formation, with de novo mutations, introgression, and double-strand break associated events all contributing to variation within the species. These results show that asexual lineages can continue to be shaped by ongoing genomic and ecological dynamics, illuminating the processes that influence transitions in reproductive mode.

asexuality↗

PubMed2026

T2T genomes of Caenorhabditis nigoni and Caenorhabditis briggsae reveal divergence in satellite DNA abundance.

The two closely related nematode species, Caenorhabditis nigoni and Caenorhabditis briggsae, are commonly used to study the evolution of reproductive modes in animals, with the self-fertile C. briggsae and outcrossing C. nigoni sharing a common ancestor ∼3.5 million years ago. Earlier genomic analyses revealed that selfing Caenorhabditis species have smaller genomes and proposed that at least some gene loss in C. briggsae is adaptive. However, the incomplete C. nigoni reference genome has limited most comparative analyses to genic regions. Here, we leverage long-read sequencing to generate and annotate telomere-to-telomere (T2T) assemblies for the C. nigoni strain JU1422 and the C. briggsae strain AF16. This new 139 Mb C. nigoni genome resolves 57 gaps and 149 unassigned scaffolds from the previous genome assembly. A major driver of the size difference with the 107 Mb T2T C. briggsae genome is the abundance of satellite DNA, which accounts for 12.8 Mb (9.2%) in C. nigoni and only 3.2 Mb (3.0%) in C. briggsae Notably, the C. nigoni X Chromosome is 13.4 Mb larger than in the previous assembly, making it 60% larger than the C. briggsae X Chromosome compared with 18%-26% difference for the autosomes. We also document a surprising degree of plasticity in the ribosomal DNA, with the C. nigoni X Chromosome harboring a second 45S rDNA array that is absent in C. briggsae The hitherto undocumented divergence in the abundance of repetitive DNA elements makes the new genomes an invaluable resource for genomic analysis.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2026

T2T genomes of Caenorhabditis nigoni and Caenorhabditis briggsae reveals extensive loss of satellite DNA associated with self-fertilization.

The two closely related Caenorhabditis nematode species, C. nigoni and C. briggsae , are commonly used to study the evolution of reproductive modes in animals, with the self-fertile C. briggsae and outcrossing C. nigoni sharing a common ancestor ∼3.5 million years ago. Earlier genomic analyses of these species revealed genome shrinkage associated with selfing and proposed that at least some gene loss can be adaptive. However, the incomplete C. nigoni reference genome limited most comparative analyses to genic regions. Here, we leveraged long-read sequencing to generate a telomere-to-telomere (T2T) assembly for the C. nigoni strain JU1422 and the C. briggsae strain AF16. This new 139Mb C. nigoni genome resolved 57 gaps and 149 unassigned scaffolds from the previous genome assembly. Comparison with the 107Mb T2T C. briggsae genome reveals that the major driver of genome content differences are deletions to satellite DNA arrays, reflecting a loss of 9.6Mb. Interestingly, many of the differences are on the C. nigoni X chromosome, which is >13Mb larger than in the previous assembly. The transition to selfing was thus accompanied by a 37% reduction in the size of the sex chromosome compared to 16-21% shrinkage of the autosomes. We also document a surprising degree of plasticity in the ribosomal DNA, with the X chromosome harboring a second 45S rDNA array that is absent in C. briggsae . Our analysis reveals that obligatory outcrossing may play a major role in the maintenance of satellite DNA arrays.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2025

Unisexual reproduction in the global human fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans.

The human fungal pathogen Cryptococcus species complex (encompassing Cryptococcus neoformans, Cryptococcus deneoformans, and the Cryptococcus gattii species complexes) exhibits diversity in sexual reproduction, including α-a mating, pseudosexual reproduction, as well as unisexual reproduction initiated from a single isolate or between isolates of the same mating type. A central conundrum is that while most Cryptococcus natural populations exhibit significant α mating-type bias, genetic and genomic analyses show recombination occurs in nature. The discovery of unisexual reproduction in C. deneoformans provided insight; however, thus far, unisexual reproduction has never been directly observed in the predominant global pathogenic species C. neoformans. Here, we provide evidence that mutating the RIC8 gene, which encodes a conserved guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) involved in both chaperoning and activating Gα proteins, enables unisexual reproduction in C. neoformans. Additionally, we show that genetic variation in the natural population promotes unisexual reproduction, and unisexual reproduction in C. neoformans involves canonical meiotic recombination. Finally, we found that deletion of both GPA2 and GPA3 in the MATα background leads to self-filamentation without sporulation, suggesting that differential modulation of the Gα proteins, likely involving Ric8, could underlie the switch between different modes of sexual reproduction in Cryptococcus. Our study further highlights that the highly conserved Ric8 GEF can act as an important regulator of cellular development in response to environmental stimuli and could modulate sexual reproduction in nature. We hypothesize that unisexual reproduction occurs much more frequently in nature than currently appreciated, and possibly in other fungi and microbial eukaryotes as well.

Cryptococcus neoformans↗

PubMed2025

Unisexual reproduction in the global human fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans.

The human fungal pathogen Cryptococcus species complex (encompassing C. neoformans, C. deneoformans, and the C. gattii species complexes) exhibit diversity in sexual reproduction, including α-a mating, pseudosexual reproduction, as well as unisexual reproduction initiated from a single isolate or between isolates of the same mating type. A central conundrum is that while most Cryptococcus natural populations exhibit significant α mating-type bias, genetic and genomic analyses show recombination occurs in nature. The discovery of unisexual reproduction in C. deneoformans provided insight; however, thus far unisexual reproduction has never been directly observed in the predominant global pathogenic species C. neoformans. Here, we provide evidence that mutating the RIC8 gene, which encodes a conserved guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) involved in both chaperoning and activating Gα proteins, enables unisexual reproduction in C. neoformans. Additionally, we show that genetic variation in the natural population promotes unisexual reproduction, and unisexual reproduction in C. neoformans involves canonical meiotic recombination. Finally, we found that deletion of both GPA2 and GPA3 in the MATα background leads to self-filamentation without sporulation, suggesting that differential modulation of the Gα proteins, likely involving Ric8, could underlie the switch between different modes of sexual reproduction in Cryptococcus. Our study further highlights that the highly conserved Ric8 GEF can act as an important regulator of cellular development in response to environmental stimuli and could modulate sexual reproduction in nature. We hypothesize that unisexual reproduction occurs much more frequently in nature than currently appreciated, and possibly in other fungi and microbial eukaryotes as well.

G protein↗

PubMed2026

Genome-wide barriers to gene flow reveal the genetic basis of viviparity evolution in a lizard.

Viviparity (live-bearing) is a major evolutionary transition repeatedly linked with ecological and evolutionary diversification throughout vertebrates. Live-bearing reproduction entails a novel suite of phenotypes and life history traits, but the genetic processes by which such a reproductive innovation evolves are unknown. Remarkable among amniotes, the common lizard (Zootoca vivipara) has extant oviparous (egg-laying) and viviparous lineages and a to-date unresolved history of parity mode emergence. This species represents an ideal model to reconstruct the evolutionary and genetic mechanisms of how viviparity arises. By analyzing whole genomes of individuals from across the species' distribution, we robustly show that viviparity evolved once. However, gene flow from oviparous to viviparous populations is found to be long-term and extensive, causing pronounced gene tree discordance. We inferred signals of selection for viviparity in many independent regions across the genome, and these were recruited over considerable time. Genomic barriers to gene flow between oviparity and viviparity were found genome wide. These are enriched for regions under selection for parity mode and for genes known to be involved in pregnancy and parturition in squamates and mammals. Further implicating their functional role in viviparity, we show that genes in genomic regions under selection and resisting gene flow are more highly expressed in the uterus of viviparous lizards during pregnancy. Our study demonstrates that viviparity in an amniote evolved by selection in the face of gene flow and primarily by the genome-wide accumulation of functional regulatory variants. These results reveal how complex adaptive innovations can arise and be maintained.

Animals↗

PubMed2025

Cell fate specification modes shape transcriptome evolution in the highly conserved spiral cleavage.

Early animal development can be remarkably variable, influenced by lineage-specific reproductive strategies and adaptations. Yet, early embryogenesis is also strikingly conserved in certain groups, such as Spiralia. In this clade, a shared cleavage program (i.e., spiral cleavage) and similar cell lineages are ancestral to at least seven phyla. Why early development is so conserved in specific groups and plastic in others is not fully understood. Here, we investigated two annelid species (Owenia fusiformis and Capitella teleta) with spiral cleavage but different modes of specifying their primary progenitor cells. By generating high-resolution transcriptomic time courses from the oocyte to gastrulation, we demonstrate that transcriptional dynamics differ markedly between these species during spiral cleavage and instead reflect their distinct timings of embryonic organiser specification. However, the end of cleavage and gastrulation exhibit high transcriptomic similarity, when orthologous transcription factors share gene expression domains, suggesting this period is a previously overlooked mid-developmental transition in annelid embryogenesis. Together, our data reveal hidden transcriptomic plasticity during spiral cleavage, indicating an evolutionary decoupling of morphological and transcriptomic conservation during early embryogenesis.

Animals↗

PubMed2025

Mendelian randomization reveals causal relationships between cytokines and male reproductive diseases.

This study aims to explore the causal links between cytokines and four male reproductive disorders, namely abnormal spermatozoa (AS), male infertility, erectile dysfunction (ED), and hyperplasia of prostate (HP), employing a two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) approach. Genetic associations with male reproductive diseases were derived from the IEU OpenGWAS project, with cytokine data from two GWASs focused on the human proteome and cytokines. Estimations were derived using inverse variance weighting, MR-Egger regression, weighted median, weighted model, and simple mode. Furthermore, the robustness of the findings was evaluated through Cochran's Q-test, MR-Egger regression, and leave-one-out sensitivity analysis. Fifteen unique cytokines were identified as having causal relationships with the risk of four male reproductive disorders. Specifically, for AS, interleukin-22 (IL-22), IL-12, and macrophage migration inhibitory factor were negatively correlated with AS, while tumor necrosis factor β levels were positively correlated with AS. In the context of male infertility, IL-2 receptor antagonist levels, IL-34, and granulocyte-colony stimulating factor levels were positively linked to male infertility, whereas IL-21 showed a negative relationship. Regarding ED, IL-19, IL-1β, and eotaxin levels were negatively associated with ED risk, while macrophage inflammatory protein 1β (MIP-1β) levels and interferon gamma-induced protein 10 levels were positively associated. As for HP, stromal-cell-derived factor 1α levels and MIP-1α levels revealed negative associations with HP. In conclusion, this MR analysis revealed that several cytokines were causally associated with male reproductive diseases and could be valuable in offering new insights for further mechanistic and clinical investigations of cytokines-associated male reproductive diseases.

Male↗

PubMed2015

Sex is a ubiquitous, ancient, and inherent attribute of eukaryotic life.

Sexual reproduction and clonality in eukaryotes are mostly seen as exclusive, the latter being rather exceptional. This view might be biased by focusing almost exclusively on metazoans. We analyze and discuss reproduction in the context of extant eukaryotic diversity, paying special attention to protists. We present results of phylogenetically extended searches for homologs of two proteins functioning in cell and nuclear fusion, respectively (HAP2 and GEX1), providing indirect evidence for these processes in several eukaryotic lineages where sex has not been observed yet. We argue that (i) the debate on the relative significance of sex and clonality in eukaryotes is confounded by not appropriately distinguishing multicellular and unicellular organisms; (ii) eukaryotic sex is extremely widespread and already present in the last eukaryotic common ancestor; and (iii) the general mode of existence of eukaryotes is best described by clonally propagating cell lines with episodic sex triggered by external or internal clues. However, important questions concern the relative longevity of true clonal species (i.e., species not able to return to sexual procreation anymore). Long-lived clonal species seem strikingly rare. We analyze their properties in the light of meiotic sex development from existing prokaryotic repair mechanisms. Based on these considerations, we speculate that eukaryotic sex likely developed as a cellular survival strategy, possibly in the context of internal reactive oxygen species stress generated by a (proto) mitochondrion. Thus, in the context of the symbiogenic model of eukaryotic origin, sex might directly result from the very evolutionary mode by which eukaryotic cells arose.

Cell Fusion↗

PubMed2026

Auxin-induced ARF transcription factor degradation defines tissue boundaries.

How organs partition themselves into discrete domains with distinct functions is a fundamental question in biology. The gynoecium of flowering plants provides an excellent system to address this question. Here, we show that the boundary between the stigma and style at the gynoecium apex is established by the complementary distribution of the phytohormone auxin and the Auxin Response Factor (ARF), ETTIN (ETT). Mechanistically, auxin induces ETT protein destabilization via the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. A short sequence motif within an intrinsically disordered region is required for this auxin-triggered degradation. Disruption of this motif leads to ectopic ETT accumulation at the gynoecium apex and consequently abolishes stigma-style boundary development. We further demonstrate that this previously unrecognized mode of auxin-induced ARF instability is evolutionarily conserved among ETT orthologs across angiosperms. In summary, this study reveals how graded auxin distribution affects ARF transcription factor activity, contributing to the establishment of the stigma-style boundary, ensuring correct gynoecium formation and reproductive success in flowering plants.

Indoleacetic Acids↗