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At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed2025

Wolbachia Host Shifts and Widespread Occurrence of Reproductive Manipulation Loci in European Butterflies.

Wolbachia is the most frequent bacterial endosymbiont of arthropods and nematodes. Although it is mostly vertically transmitted, from parent to offspring through the egg cytoplasm, horizontal transfer of Wolbachia is thought to be common over evolutionary timescales. However, the relative frequency of each transmission mechanism has not been studied systematically in closely related species. Additionally, while Wolbachia is generally regarded as a reproductive manipulator, it is unclear how frequently the symbiont induces such effects. In this study, we investigated the presence, phenotypes and phylogenetic relationships among Wolbachia strains in whole genome sequence data for 18 European butterfly sister-species pairs. We find that sister-species share Wolbachia strains more often than random species pairs and that the probability of strain sharing is higher for younger pairs of host species, especially those with greater range overlap. We also find that split times between Wolbachia strains that infect the same sister-species pair generally pre-date host divergence, ruling out co-divergence in favour of horizontal transfer. However, some strains are younger than the mitochondrial split times of their hosts, so introgressive transfer cannot be ruled out in some cases. In addition, all newly assembled Wolbachia genomes contained putative homologues of genes associated with cytoplasmic incompatibility and male killing. This supports the potential for reproductive manipulation in Wolbachia strains infecting European butterflies, which until now was only inferred from mitochondrial diversity patterns. Our results show that horizontal and introgressive transfer of Wolbachia are frequent even between recently speciated host taxa, suggesting the symbiont's turnover rate is higher than had been inferred previously from surveys of distantly related hosts.

Animals↗
PubMed2026

Wolbachia strain wLhui induces temperature-dependent incomplete cytoplasmic incompatibility in the invasive pest Liriomyza huidobrensis with biocontrol potential.

BACKGROUND: Wolbachia is a maternally inherited endosymbiont that manipulates host reproduction through cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI), offering promising opportunities for biocontrol of agricultural pests. The leaf-miner Liriomyza huidobrensis (Blanchard) is a globally invasive and highly polyphagous pest with a high incidence of Wolbachia infection; however, its reproductive effects remain poorly understood. Here, we investigated the reproductive manipulation induced by the Wolbachia strain wLhui using genomics analyses and crossing assays. RESULTS: wLhui localized primarily to the reproductive tissues of both female and male adults and maintained a 100% infection prevalence across three host generations under both low (15 and 20 °C) and moderate (25 °C) temperatures. Crossing assays showed that wLhui induced incomplete CI, reducing egg hatch by approximately 30% in incompatible crosses. Both CI strength (sh) and wLhui density varied with host rearing temperature. Genome sequencing revealed that wLhui (approximately 1.27 Mb) belongs to supergroup A and harbors two pairs of CI factor genes (cifA and cifB). These Cif proteins are classified as Type I and exhibit substantial phylogenetic and structural divergence. Expression of CifB-pair1 caused growth defects in yeast, suggesting that CifB-pair1 exhibits toxicity. However, no direct interaction between CifA and CifB was detected by yeast two-hybrid assays. CONCLUSIONS: These findings elucidate the role and molecular basis of wLhui-induced reproductive manipulation and highlight its potential for developing Wolbachia-based biocontrol strategies against leaf-miner pests. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.

Animals↗
PubMed2025

The ecology, evolution, and physiology of Cardinium: a widespread heritable endosymbiont of invertebrates.

Candidatus Cardinium hertigii (Cardinium) are maternally transmitted obligate intracellular bacteria found in a wide range of invertebrate hosts, including arthropods and nematodes. Infection with Cardinium has substantial consequences for host biology, with many strains manipulating host reproduction to favor symbiont transmission by (i) feminizing male hosts, (ii) altering host sex allocation, (iii) inducing parthenogenesis, or (iv) causing cytoplasmic incompatibility. Other Cardinium strains can confer benefits to their host or alter host behavior. Cardinium-modified host phenotypes can result in selective sweeps of cytological elements through host populations and potentially reinforce host speciation. Cardinium has potential for applications in controlling arthropod pest species and arthropod-vectored disease transmission, although much remains to be explored regarding Cardinium physiology and host interactions. In this review, we provide an overview of Cardinium evolution and host distribution. We describe the various host phenotypes associated with Cardinium and how biological and environmental factors influence these symbioses. We also provide an overview of Cardinium metabolism, physiology, and potential mechanisms for interactions with hosts based on recent studies using genomics and transcriptomics. Finally, we discuss new methodologies and directions for Cardinium research, including improving our understanding of Cardinium physiology, response to environmental stress, and potential for controlling arthropod pest populations.

Symbiosis↗
PubMed1979

[Modelling of measured restriction of the coronary blood flow].

Experiments were conducted on dogs under conditions of closed chest catheterization and autoperfusion of the coronary vessels to study the methods and manipulations providing reliable reproduction of previously planned direct restriction of coronary blood flow, strictly dosed in degree and duration, simulating coronary insufficiency of various severity. The use of this complex of methods and manipulations makes it possible to avoid the shortcomings and undesirable consequences of denervation of the coronary arteries and their extravascular mechanical compression and the need to open the chest. The simulated restriction of coronary blood flow is reversible owing to which it may be reproduce many time in one experiment.

Animals↗
PubMed1978

Cytology of the pineal gland: changes produced by various treatments.

The cytological appearance of the pineal body is related to stage of development or age, time of day, exposure to illumination, season of the year, and reproductive state. Experimental manipulations that alter the normal cytology of the pineal include hypophysectomy, administration of any of several hormones or drugs, blinding, denervation and exposure to stressful influences such as heat or cold. The effects of blinding are similar to the effects of continuous darkness on the pineal's cytology. Ultrastructural examinations reveal a number of changes in the organelles, especially an increased number of vesicles and complex membranous whorls. These features suggest heightened activity and generally are coincident with sexual quiescence. Membranous whorls also may be induced by cold exposure. Prolonged or continuous illumination leads to a reduction in the size of pinealocytes and to changes in their organelles that suggest reduced activity. Such alterations can often be correlated with heightened sexual activity. Sympathetic denervation of pineal glands also results in atrophy of the pinealocytes. Reproductive condition is reflected in the appearance of the pinealocytes. The estrous cycle, pregnancy, castration and the administration of gonadotropins or gonadal steroids affect pinealocyte structure. A feedback system involving the gonads and pineal gland is indicated.

Aging↗
PubMed2025

Manipulating seasonality by using PMSG and Kisspeptin hormones and the impact of the MTNR1A gene on reproduction efficiency in ewes.

BACKGROUND: One of the most important problems in sheep is seasonal anestrus, which limits the reproductive efficiency of the sheep. Estrous synchronization is considered the first plan for reproductive performance in sheep due to the pregnancy time is limited, and parturition as well as an increase in twining and reached good genetic characteristics. AIM: This study aimed to manipulate seasonality that limits fertility in ewes by induction estrus during seasonal anestrous in sheep by using Pregnant Mare Serum Gonadotropin (PMSG), Kisspeptin hormone, and study the impact of MTNR1A gene on reproduction efficiency in ewes. METHODS: This study examined 36 Awassi ewes divided into two groups, each containing 18 ewes, 2-3 years old, and two fertile rams aged 3-4 years and weighing 60-65 kg. All non-pregnant ewes were synchronized using vaginal sponges (60 mg Medroxy Progesterone acetate) for 10 days. The injection of treatment when sponges are draws. The first group (G1) received 500 IU of PMSG injection, and the second group (G2) injection a Kisspeptin hormone 5 &#x3bc;g/kg B.W. RESULTS: The results showed the G1 treated by PMSG 500IU were higher significantly (p &#x2264; 0.05) of estrus response, induction estrus and pregnancy (89%, 89%, and 89%), respectively, comparative with G2 treated by (Kisspeptin 5 mg/kg) were (72%, 72%, and 66%), respectively, and non-significant changes in estrus were observed in all groups. The average peripheral progesterone concentration significantly increased from day 0 to 5th month in G1 comparative with G2 in pregnant ewes. Serum progesterone levels were significantly p < 0.05 during of 4th month in G1 treatment by (PMSG 500IU) compared with day 0 and all other months during pregnancy of ewes. The average days to lambing in genotypes CT and TT (150 &#xb1; 2.5 and 152 &#xb1; 3.5 days), respectively, were significant comparative with CC genotype; however, the litter size and lambing rate observed in the enrolled ewes were non-significant in all genotypes. CC, CT, and TT represent three possible genotypes at a specific location (locus) in the genome, often referring to a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). These genotypes indicate the combination of alleles an individual inherits from their parents for a particular gene. They refer to the presence of two alleles for a particular nitrogenous base: C and T are nitrogenous bases: C = Cytosine and T = Thymine. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, the application of PMSG and Kisspeptin was effective in achievement good higher significantly of reproduction efficiency in this study. The genotypes CT and TT of the MTNR1A gene polymorphism were connected with a short significant of days to lambing in genotypes.

Animals↗
PubMed2026

A CRISPR-Cas9 screen identifies LAPTM4A (lysosomal protein transmembrane 4 alpha) as a key host barrier against PRRSV infection.

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) manipulates host intracellular processes, particularly macroautophagy/autophagy and lysosomal function, to facilitate its replication and spread. However, the precise host factors and molecular mechanisms by which PRRSV remodels the autophagy-lysosome axis remain poorly defined. Here, we performed a CRISPR-Cas9 knockout screen targeting 1,332 genes involved in protein degradation, metabolism, and vesicular trafficking, and identified LAPTM4A (lysosomal protein transmembrane 4 alpha) as a critical antiviral factor involved in the lysosomal pathway. A yeast two-hybrid screen identified LAPTM4A as an interactor of PRRSV GP5 (glycoprotein 5). Mechanistically, GP5 recruits the E3 ubiquitin ligase NEDD4 and the autophagy receptor SQSTM1/p62 to promote K63-linked polyubiquitination of LAPTM4A, leading to its autophagic degradation. This selective degradation activates the AMPK-ULK1-MAP1LC3/LC3 signaling cascade, initiating autophagy while facilitating MTOR-lysosome colocalization, thereby suppressing TFEB nuclear translocation and transcription of lysosome-related genes. The resulting incomplete autophagic flux enhances viral replication. Additionally, in terms of host defense, LAPTM4A maintains lysosomal homeostasis by restraining excessive autophagy through AMPK-ULK1-LC3 signaling and promoting TFEB-dependent lysosomal gene expression by impairing the binding of RPTOR/raptor to MTOR, thus providing broad antiviral protection against multiple RNA viruses. Collectively, our findings identify LAPTM4A as a central regulator of lysosome-autophagy homeostasis and reveal a viral strategy that dismantles this defense axis to facilitate infection.Abbreviations: ATG5: autophagy related 5; AMPK: adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase; Baf A1: bafilomycin A1; CHX: cycloheximide; Co-IP: co-immunoprecipitation; DMVT library: protein degradation, metabolism, and vesicular trafficking library; LAPTM4A: lysosomal protein transmembrane 4 alpha; MAGeCK: model-based analysis of genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 knockout; MOI: multiplicity of infection; MTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; NC: negative control; PAMs: porcine alveolar macrophages; PRKAA/AMPK&#x3b1;: protein kinase AMP-activated catalytic subunit alpha; PRRSV: porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus; qRT-PCR: quantitative real-time PCR; siRNA: small interfering RNA; SQSTM1/p62: sequestosome 1; TCID50: 50% tissue culture infective dose; TFEB: transcription factor EB; Ub: ubiquitin; ULK1: unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 1; WT: wild type.

Animals↗
PubMed2026

Trade-offs in avian parental care: a review of theory and meta-analysis of brood size manipulations.

The selective forces shaping parental care have been studied for over 50&#x2009;years. While theoretical and experimental work has yielded qualitative progress, the large body of empirical work testing predictions about parental investment based on life-history trade-offs has yet to be synthesized. We first provide an overview of the core life-history theory exploring how selection might shape parental care. We then conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis on studies that experimentally manipulated brood size in birds, a widely used experimental approach to manipulate parental investment. We extracted 313 estimates from 62 studies representing 31 species of birds from 19 different families and tested key predictions on trade-offs in parental care derived from theory. Our analysis provides strong support for some predictions about life-history trade-offs in parental care, but weak or equivocal support for others. Specifically, we found that overall, avian parents respond to brood size manipulations as predicted by life-history theory: they increased care in response to brood enlargement, and decreased care in response to brood reductions. Furthermore, for the same relative manipulation size, responses to brood reductions were greater than responses to brood enlargements. This finding is consistent with predictions derived from life-history theory based on some types of non-linear utility curves. However, many predictions derived from theory are not well supported by our comparative analysis. Species' life-history traits such as clutch size (a measure of current reproduction), adult survival, and broods per year (two measures of future reproduction), explained little, if any, among-species variation in response to brood size manipulations. Several factors may explain this. We highlight that brood size manipulations may affect more than just perception of the value of current reproduction, such as altering parents' perception of predation risk. Importantly, these unintended consequences could lead to asymmetric responses like those we observed. Other common experimental approaches - such as hormone manipulations, altering a partner's effort, and food supplementation - often affect multiple traits or fitness components simultaneously, or may involve cues that poorly match the evolved mechanisms guiding parental behaviour. Our review of both theory and experimental approaches suggests that there are multiple opportunities for more precise experiments. We offer several recommendations for effective designs. One is improved understanding of the biology underlying the functions relating to costs and benefits, with careful consideration of not only how the manipulation will affect only one of those, but also the mechanisms that might alter how parents perceive the manipulation. We also emphasize general principles, such as assessing alternative hypotheses and devising multiple independent tests. Armed with these recommendations, we believe there are new opportunities to increase the strength of inference achieved from studies aimed at understanding the trade-offs affecting the evolution of parental care.

Animals↗
PubMed2026

Long-term rock dove (Columba livia) primordial germ cell culture: A tool towards avian conservation.

Primordial germ cells (PGCs) are critical tools for genome engineering and conservation in birds. Although culture systems for chicken PGCs have been well established for nearly two decades, efforts to propagate PGCs from other avian species have proved exceptionally challenging, limiting the broader application of artificial reproductive technologies in birds. Here we report the first successful derivation and long-term culture of PGCs from the rock dove, or common pigeon (Columba livia). Guided by transcriptomic profiling of PGCs, we developed a species-specific medium that supports PGC maintenance and expansion. We identify insulin signaling as a requirement for survival under the conditions tested, and demonstrate that inhibition of the retinoic acid receptor, in the presence of vitamin A, supports propagation. Supplementation with bone morphogenetic protein 4, leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor, and pleiotrophin further enhances PGC proliferation. Cultured cells express canonical germline markers and migrate to the gonads following injection into both rock dove and chicken embryos, confirming functional migratory competency. These findings establish a platform for germline manipulation and biobanking in Columbidae, broadening the potential applicability of reproductive technologies to conservation efforts.

Animals↗
PubMed1978

[Comparative study of 3 irreversible hydrocolloids].

This study was realized: to determine the best manipulation of 3 alginates; to compare their dimensional stability; to compare their reproduction of detail; to evaluate, through these 3 criteria, the best of the 3 alginates. It seems necessary to point out that: The 3 examined alginates show a poor dimensional stability on account of the deformations produced during the setting time and the removal of the impression. The immediate pouring of the model gives the best results, because storing the impression is accompanied by dimensional changes. The other methods of conservation seem considerably less accurate. The reproduction of detail is excellent with the 3 alginates. The accuracy is of 25 micrometer, but it is not possible to take advantage of this quality, because the compatibility and the accuracy of model stone are insufficiently adapted to the properties of the alginates. CA-37 is, among the 3 studied alginates, the one which gave the worst results with regard to the ease of manipulation and compatibility with Vel Mix Stone.

Alginates↗
PubMed2025

OsIDD6, an INDETERMINATE DOMAIN containing transcription factor in rice, plays an essential role in reproductive development.

INDETERMINATE DOMAIN containing proteins (IDD) are plant-specific transcriptional factors with a diverse range of roles in plants. Among the 15 IDD genes in rice, a staple food crop for the world, only about half have been functionally characterized. To elucidate the function of the remaining members, we created loss-of-function mutants using the CRISPR genome editing technique. Although no mutant exhibited obvious growth phenotypes, the Osidd6 mutant was completely sterile. By genetic crossing, we showed that both the male and female gametophytes were defective in the mutant. Histochemical staining and thin sectioning revealed that microspore development was compromised, likely due to a delay in tapetum degeneration. We also showed that meiosis was impaired in the mutant, resulting in defective megaspore development. Through a series of experiments, including transcriptome analysis, reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), in situ hybridization, &#x3b2;-glucuronidase (GUS) staining with promoter-GUS transgenic plants, yeast one-hybrid method, a dual-visible reporter assay, and transcriptional activity assay, we demonstrated that OsIDD6 is expressed in all cell types in the male and female reproductive organs and that the OsIDD6 protein directly regulates genes potentially having a role in meiosis and tapetum development. Since reproductive development is directly related to crop yield, OsIDD6 could be an important target for genetic manipulation in rice breeding.

Oryza↗
PubMed1978

Laparoscopy in zoological medicine.

The technique of laparoscopy was adapted and utilized in zoological medicine for various mammals, birds, and reptiles for reproductive and diagnostic studies as well as clinically related research. It was concluded that since anesthesia was routinely required for most manipulative procedures in zoo animals, and since laparoscopy adds little additional risk, the use of this technique provides an additional diagnostic aid when indicated. Laparoscopy was found to be effective for evaluating reproductive status, particularly ovarian anatomy and function, direct visual biopsy of internal organs, sex determination in selected birds, and as a surgical means of fertility control.

Animals↗
PubMed1979

Response mechanisms underlying kinesthetic short-term memory.

The variables of reproduction cue, activity during retention interval, and orientation of the recall movement were manipulated to assess simultaneously the viability of two hypotheses of motor short-term memory. Data partially supported hypotheses as positive response biasing was evident in recall after a filled retention interval (Pepper & Herman, 1970) and that for a given range of movements some adaption to a central reference level occurred (Laabs, 1973).

Cues↗
PubMed2026

PRRSV suppresses FTO-dependent m6A demethylation to reprogram STAT signaling and innate immunity.

RNA viruses have evolved diverse strategies to evade host interferon (IFN)-stimulated gene (ISG) defenses; however, how they exploit host epitranscriptomic regulation remains poorly understood. Here, we identify an immune-evasion mechanism in which porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) targets the m6A demethylase fat mass and obesity-associated protein (FTO) to suppress antiviral signaling. Mechanistically, the viral endoribonuclease nsp11 inhibits STAT5-dependent transcription through the key residues Q96 and S104, thereby reducing FTO expression. Loss of FTO increases m6A modification of STAT2 and STAT3 transcripts, impairing their translation and phosphorylation, thereby attenuating ISG responses. Reduced STAT3 activity further dampens STAT5 signaling, establishing a feed-forward circuit that amplifies suppression of antiviral immunity. Functionally, disruption of this regulatory region (Q96A and S104A) attenuates viral pathogenicity in vivo and restores ISG induction. These mutations also reduce infection-associated inflammatory responses and the accumulation of reactive oxygen species. Together, these findings define a nsp11-STAT5-FTO-STAT2/3 axis that enables PRRSV to reprogram host epitranscriptomic control of innate immunity. Our work reveals a mechanism of epitranscriptomic hijacking and identifies FTO as a key host factor exploited by RNA viruses, highlighting m6A regulation as a potential target for antiviral intervention.IMPORTANCEViruses must overcome host innate immune defenses to establish infection; however, the mechanisms by which they manipulate host RNA regulation remain incompletely understood. In this study, we show that porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) suppresses interferon responses by targeting the host m6A demethylase FTO through its endoribonuclease nsp11. This process involves the inhibition of STAT5 phosphorylation, which reduces FTO expression and increases m6A modification of key immune regulators, including STAT2 and STAT3, thereby impairing their activation. Disruption of this pathway attenuates viral pathogenicity in vivo and restores antiviral signaling. These results demonstrate that PRRSV can reprogram host epitranscriptomic regulation to modulate innate immunity and suggest that m6A-related pathways may be potential targets for antiviral intervention.

Immunity, Innate↗
PubMed2026

The Drosophila aryl hydrocarbon receptor ortholog, spineless, modulates survival and reproduction.

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a highly conserved, ligand-activated transcription factor in mammals involved in multiple physiological processes, including development, xenobiotic detoxification, and potentially aging, and some of the most potent activators of AhR are tryptophan metabolites. AhR manipulation across species has been shown to have conflicting results on aging phenotypes that are often tissue specific. To expand our understanding of AhR and aging, we studied AhR affects survival and reproduction in Drosophila melanogaster, whose genome contains an ortholog of AhR, spineless (ss). Our findings indicate that ss-deficient flies have a shorter lifespan than wildtype flies but interestingly exhibit reduced mortality until approximately 40 days of age. Similarly, ss-deficient flies are more stress resistant than wildtype at young ages, but this reverses in later age. Negative lifespan-shortening effects of tryptophan metabolites were mitigated in ss-deficient flies, suggesting that the effects of these metabolites are ss-reliant, similar to AhR in mammals. Overall, our preliminary work demonstrates an evolutionarily conserved role for AhR in the aging process and increases our knowledge of the role of AhR/ss on aging phenotypes.

Animals↗
PubMed1976

Nutritional deficiency, immunologic function, and disease.

Several experiments conducted by our group over a period of 6 years have shown that nutritional stress, especially protein and/or calorie deprivation, leads to many, often dramatic, changes in the immune responses of mice, rats, and guinea pigs. Chronic protein deprivation (CPD) has been shown to create an enhancing effect on the cell-mediated immune responses of these animals. Humoral responses under CPD conditions were most often found to be depressed, but sometimes were unaffected, depending on the nature of the antigen employed. Chronic protein deprivation, consistent with the pattern just mentioned, improved tumor immunity by depressing production of B-cell blocking factors, and, in at least one instance, resistance to development of mammary adenocarcinoma in C3H mice was associated with evidence of increased numbers of T suppressor cells. Profound nutritional deficits (less than 5% protein per total daily food intake) depressed both cellular and humoral immunity. Early, though temporary, protein deprivation caused a long-term depression of both cellular and humoral immunity also, with the humoral component being the first to recover. Manipulation of protein and calories was found to have a profound effect on certain autoimmune conditions. Diets high in fat and low in protein favored reproduction but shortened the life of NZB mice, whereas diets high in protein and low in fat inhibited development of autoimmunity and prolonged life. Chronic moderate protein restriction permitted NZB mice to maintain their normally waning immunologic functions much longer than mice fed a normal protein intake. Further, the low-protein diet was associated with a delay in development of manifestations of autoimmunity. Decreasing dietary calories by a reduction of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins more than doubled the average life span of (NZB X NZW)F1 mice, a strain prone to early death from autoimmune disease. Histopathologic studies using immunofluorescent microscopy revealed that the development of the renal lesions caused by the deposition of antigen-antibody complexes, which is so characteristic of these mice, was markedly delayed.

Anemia, Hemolytic↗
PubMed2025

Pervasive fitness trade-offs revealed by rapid adaptation to shifting population densities in large experimental populations of Drosophila melanogaster.

Trade-offs are an inherent feature of organismal biology that are expected play a fundamental role in the evolution of natural populations. Efforts to quantify trade-offs are largely confined to phenotypic measurements and the identification of negative genetic-correlations among fitness-relevant traits. Here, we use time-series genomic data collected during experimental evolution in large, genetically diverse populations of Drosophila melanogaster to directly measure the manifestation of trade-offs in response to fluctuating selection on ecological timescales. Specifically, we first conducted a lab-based selection experiment to quantify a genome-wide signal of antagonistic pleiotropy elicited in response to shifting population densities and associated with reproduction and stress tolerance selection. In doing so, we identified a putative role of two cosmopolitan inversions in these trade-offs. We then conducted an independent experiment to show that a simple manipulation of increasing population density under controlled lab-based conditions identified loci that are relevant to selection during population expansion and collapse in a complex, semi-natural setting. In concert, our results reveal how adaptation in complex, natural environments can be coarse-grained in such a manner to drive repeatable and predictable patterns of genomic variation, and further add credence to models positing a role of generic fitness trade-offs in the maintenance of variation in natural populations.

Drosophila melanogaster↗