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PubMed1990

[The effect of similarity between the study and the prototypical exemplars on the recognition of prototypical exemplars].

To test whether the similarity between the prototypical and the study exemplars affects the recognition of prototypical exemplars, 60 undergraduates were presented two, four, or six sample exemplars simultaneously and then asked to judge whether average prototypical (Pa) or the modal prototypical (Pm) exemplars, was more similar to, or went together with them. In the narrow category structure which are composed of exemplars with less variable values, the Pa exemplars were selected as frequently as the Pm ones. In the wide category structure which are composed of the exemplars with more variable values, however, the Pm exemplars were selected more frequently than the Pa ones. Previous finding that Pm exemplars were more abstracted than Pa exemplars in the wide structure might be due to the similarity between prototypical exemplars and sample exemplars.

Adult↗

PubMed1991

Human adults and human infants show a "perceptual magnet effect" for the prototypes of speech categories, monkeys do not.

Many perceptual categories exhibit internal structure in which category prototypes play an important role. In the four experiments reported here, the internal structure of phonetic categories was explored in studies involving adults, infants, and monkeys. In Experiment 1, adults rated the category goodness of 64 variants of the vowel i parallel on a scale from 1 to 7. The results showed that there was a certain location in vowel space where listeners rated the i parallel vowels as best instances, or prototypes. The perceived goodness of i parallel vowels declined systematically as stimuli were further removed from the prototypic i parallel vowel. Experiment 2 went beyond this initial demonstration and examined the effect of speech prototypes on perception. Either the prototypic or a nonprototypic i parallel vowels was used as the referent stimulus and adults' generalization to other members of the category was examined. Results showed that the typicality of the speech stimulus strongly affected perception. When the prototype of the category served as the referent vowel, there was significantly greater generalization to other i parallel vowels, relative to the situation in which the nonprototype served as the referent. The notion of a perceptual magnet was introduced. The prototype of the category functioned like a perceptual magnet for other category members; it assimilated neighboring stimuli, effectively pulling them toward the prototype. In Experiment 3, the ontogenetic origins of the perceptual magnet effect were explored by testing 6-month-old infants. The results showed that infants' perception of vowels was also strongly affected by speech prototypes. Infants showed significantly greater generalization when the prototype of the vowel category served as the referent; moreover, their responses were highly correlated with those of adults. In Experiment 4, Rhesus monkeys were tested to examine whether or not the prototype's magnet effect was unique to humans. The animals did not provide any evidence of speech prototypes; they did not exhibit the magnet effect. It is suggested that the internal organization of phonetic categories around prototypic members is an ontogenetically early, species-specific, aspect of the speech code.

Adult↗

PubMed1987

Monoclonal antibodies demonstrate heterogeneity in the G glycoprotein of prototype strains and clinical isolates of respiratory syncytial virus.

In order to study variation among prototype strains and clinical isolates of respiratory syncytial (RS) virus, four prototype strains (Long, A2, CH18537, 9320) were used to produce monoclonal antibodies to this virus. The majority of monoclonals reacted with all four prototype strains by fluorescent antibody staining. Among the non-cross-reacting monoclonals, five additional patterns of reactivity with the prototype strains were recognized. Fourteen monoclonals, including ones representative of each of the patterns of reactivity with the prototype strains, were selected to use for typing prototype strains and community isolates. All 14 were found by immunoprecipitation to recognize the RS virus G glycoprotein. These monoclonals could uniquely identify each of the prototype strains. In addition to the antigenic differences among the prototype strains detected by the monoclonals, differences were also detected in the migration of the G glycoprotein of the prototype strains in polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Fluorescent antibody staining with panels of monoclonals distinguished two antigenic types among 114 isolates of RS virus recovered from children in St. Louis during the period 1981-86. The predominant type (80% of isolates) had a pattern of reactivity that resembled but differed from that of either the Long or A2 strains. The second type had a pattern of reactivity identical with that of 9320. The possible significance of this heterogeneity must be considered in developing diagnostic tests as well as active or passive immunotherapy for infections caused by RS virus.

Antibodies, Monoclonal↗

PubMed1987

[On the relation between prototype abstraction and exemplar retention in the memory of melodies].

This study examined the relation between prototype abstraction and exemplar retention by using memory of melodies. Acquisition lists of melodies were constructed by applying a set of transformation rules to a fixed prototype melody (cf. Welker, 1982). Immediately after the presentation of acquisition list, recognition task was performed. The recognition rating for prototype was used as the indicator of the prototype abstraction. The discriminability of old melodies from new melodies (d') was used as the indicator of exemplar retention. In Exp. 1 with 30 undergraduates as subjects, the transformational distance of acquisition list was varied and it was demonstrated that as the transformational distance decreased, prototype abstraction was facilitated but exemplar retention was not changed. In Exp. 2 with 90 undergraduates as subjects, the number of presentation of each melody and the kinds of melodies in acquisition list were varied. Results demonstrated that as the number of presentation of each melody increased and also as the kinds of melodies decreased, the exemplar retention improved but prototype abstraction was not changed. It was argued that the systems underlying the prototype abstraction and exemplar retention were functionally independent of each other.

Adult↗

PubMed1992

Variational analysis of the transdermal delivery rate from two prototypical ethanol-water nitroglycerin TTS devices and Transderm-Nitro 10 in the normal population.

The performance of two prototypical ethanol-water flux-enhanced transdermal therapeutic systems were compared to the performance of commercial Transderm-Nitro 10. This was a single-center, open-label, three-treatment, randomized crossover study in six healthy subjects who completed the study. Concurrent with each transdermal treatment, an infusion of the stable isotope [15N]3-nitroglycerin was administered. The use of double isotope methodology was incorporated into this study to minimize the variation introduced by fixed-effect error on the evaluation of transdermal flux. The objectives of this study were to isolate experimentally and characterize the average flux enhancement of each prototype, to determine the temporal profile of delivery, and to evaluate the components of variance of drug delivery from each transdermal system. The results of this study showed that the two flux-enhanced transdermal systems with different fill volumes both produced flux enhancement factors of 2 to 3 relative to Transderm-Nitro 10. Prototype B demonstrated a 57% reduction in intersubject variation relative to Transderm-Nitro 10 indicative of enhanced control of drug permeation across a subject population. Prototype A, while reducing intersubject variations, was less than optimal. Both prototypes demonstrated comparable intrasubject variation relative to Transderm-Nitro 10, indicating similar stability for within-subject transdermal drug delivery. The flux enhancement and variational properties of Prototype B were consistent with those intended based on mechanistic considerations of mutual nitroglycerin and ethanol-coupled transdermal delivery.

Administration, Cutaneous↗

PubMed1985

Evaluation of two prototype devices producing noninvasive, pulsatile, calibrated blood pressure measurement from a finger.

We evaluated two prototype instruments that measure pulsatile blood pressure continuously and noninvasively and compared the mean arterial pressure obtained from these devices with that obtained invasively in 17 male surgical patients. Each prototype consisted of an infrared photoplethysmograph mounted inside a finger cuff. The cuff was connected to a pressure control valve, which rapidly changed the cuff pressure so as to maintain a null pressure difference across the finger arterial wall. The resultant cuff pressure rapidly tracked the pulsatile intraarterial pressure. The prototypes reproduced absolute pressure, as well as pressure changes, accurately and linearly over a wide range of mean arterial pressures (from 2 to 164 mm Hg), with an average offset error of 0.8 mm Hg (SD +/- 3.8; range, -4.6 to 7.9), a mean scatter error of 5.3 mm Hg (range, 3.6 to 8.6), a mean regression slope of 0.97 (range, 0.79 to 1.22) and a mean correlation coefficient of the regression of 0.96 (range, 0.89 to 0.98). Both prototypes worked satisfactorily on all 17 patients, but not all the time on all patients. In 7 patients, probable arterial spasm prevented measurement of finger blood pressure 12.1% of the time, or 5.4% of the time for all patients. Ninety-six percent of the lost samples occurred with prototype 2, suggesting an instrument-related cause, rather than one related to the principle itself. The prototypes were simple to use and were almost free from artifact. Continuous monitoring for up to 7 hours on a single finger caused no harm to the finger.

Aged↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Prototyping with AIDA for a hospital pharmacy system.

The CENTRASYS system for the Hospital Pharmacy, developed as part of a research project of the Department of Medical Informatics is described. The role of AIDA, a fourth-generation software package, as a prototyping tool is discussed. It is concluded that AIDA facilitates prototyping and is also very suitable as a vehicle for systems in operation. It is further concluded that prototyping is of great help in the developmental phase of a project, but that great care has to be taken during evaluation of the prototypes: minimize the number of test sites and try to avoid that users become dependent on the system, because every prototype needs further tuning before it really becomes an operational system.

Drug Information Services↗

PubMed1990

Drinker prototypes in American society.

Based on a national probability sample of 2,401 Americans age 21 and over (1,069 of whom were deemed "drinkers" on the basis of having consumed at least one alcoholic beverage in the past 7 days), this study develops profiles of the drinker and heavier drinking prototypes for beer, distilled spirits, wine, and wine cooler drinkers. Both beer-drinking prototypes are mainly composed of less well-educated males who drink beer in circumstances unconnected with any mealtime setting. Wine drinkers are more often women (although the heavy drinking prototype is more likely to be a man), usually with education at or beyond the "some college" level, who typically drink wine in moderation with a meal such as dinner. Both prototypes of the distilled spirits drinkers are likely to be men, age 45 or over, who are not currently married, who usually drink in a bar, before a meal, when they feel somewhat happy or calm. Wine cooler drinkers are much more heterogeneous, and hence less distinguishable than the other drinking prototypes. The heavier wine cooler drinker, however, is likely to be single, with 12 or 13 years of schooling. This person usually drinks when feeling very stimulated, very happy, very romantic, or else very bored, and often does so at bars or in friends' homes.

Adult↗

PubMed1988

Conceptions of states and traits: dimensional attributes with ideals as prototypes.

Traits and states are concepts that people use to both describe and understand themselves and others. We show that people view these concepts as prototype-based categories that have a graded internal structure and fuzzy boundaries and identify a set of attributes that define the prototypical cores of two categories: traits and states. Prototypical traits are stable, long-lasting, and internally caused. Prototypical states are temporary, brief, and caused by external circumstances. These prototypes are not defined by averages, as the family-resemblance principle would suggest, but by ideal (or extreme) attribute values. Like other ideal-based categories, traits and states serve particular goals. Trait concepts permit people to predict the present from the past; state concepts identify those behaviors that can be controlled by manipulating the situation. These two complementary schemas are part of the extensive theory of psychological causality that is implicit in language. Abstract social concepts differ from object categories in their category standards, the nature of their attributes, and the interrelations among those attributes.

Behavior↗

PubMed1989

Life history prototypes in the study of human individuality.

Using biographical data collected in late adolescence and young adulthood, prototypes or subgroups of individuals with similar patterns of prior behaviors and experiences were empirically identified. The prototypes are described, and the pathways taken by the prototypes from adolescence to adulthood are examined. Focusing on the various pathways or trajectories followed by different prototypes, we discuss implications of prototype membership for continuity and change in personality.

Achievement↗

PubMed1992

Prototyping an institutional IAIMS/UMLS information environment for an academic medical center.

The paper describes a prototype information environment designed to link network-based information resources in an integrated fashion and thus enhance the information capabilities of an academic medical center. The prototype was implemented on a single Macintosh computer to permit exploration of the overall "information architecture" and to demonstrate the various desired capabilities prior to full-scale network-based implementation. At the heart of the prototype are two components: a diverse set of information resources available over an institutional computer network and an information sources map designed to assist users in finding and accessing information resources relevant to their needs. The paper describes these and other components of the prototype and presents a scenario illustrating its use. The prototype illustrates the link between the goals of two National Library of Medicine initiatives, the Integrated Academic Information Management System (IAIMS) and the Unified Medical Language System (UMLS).

Academic Medical Centers↗

PubMed1989

Differences in responsiveness of clonally derived AXC/SSh rat prostate cancer cells to secreted or prototypic mitogens.

AXC/SSh rat prostate cancer cells elaborate heat-sensitive, heparin-binding mitogens which include members of the fibroblast growth factor (FGF)-like family of growth factors. The quantity of FGF-like growth factors, relative to total growth factor production, was cell line specific as was prostate cancer cell response to secreted or the prototypic mitogens basic FGF (bFGF), acidic FGF (aFGF), or epidermal growth factor (EGF). C3 cell proliferation, assayed either by cell counting or thymidine incorporation, was not affected by mitogens secreted by C3, D1, T1, or T5 prostate cancer cells or by bFGF, aFGF, or EGF. In contrast, C3, D1, T1, or T5 cell-secreted mitogens enhanced proliferation of T1 and T5 cells, and proliferation of D1, T1, and T5 cells was enhanced by bFGF, aFGF, and EGF. D1 cell response to prototypic mitogens was 3- to 12-fold less than that of T1 or T5 cells. By comparison, the NRKF cell response to prototypic mitogens was qualitatively comparable but quantitatively greater than that of rat prostate cancer cells. The relative and absolute bFGF or aFGF concentrations necessary for half-maximum stimulation of prostate cancer or normal rat kidney fibroblast cell thymidine incorporation were comparable to that known to effect half-maximum increase in proliferation of mesoderm-derived cells. Similarly, the EGF concentration required for half-maximum prostate cancer or normal rat kidney fibroblast cell thymidine incorporation was comparable to that known to effect half-maximum fibroblast thymidine incorporation or granulosa cell proliferation. Our data establish that prostate cancer cell response to prototypic mitogens is representative of that of nonneoplastic cells and imply that C3 cell insensitivity to prostate cancer cell or prototypic mitogens represents defects in cellular response mechanisms. The basis for C3 cell unresponsiveness or D1 cell-diminished responsiveness remains to be elaborated.

Animals↗

PubMed1975

Terminal dilution purification of adenovirus prototypes, and the antigenic relationship between types 4, 16 and 14.

Two terminal dilution purifications in HEK cells were performed with adenovirus prototypes of types 1 to 7, 12, 16, 19 and 9-15, and one terminal dilution with a freshly isolated type 8 strain. The antisera prepared against viruses after terminal dilution neutralized the original and the purified virus to the same extent, indicating the antigenic purity of the respective prototypes. Cross-reactions in neutralization with other types within the subgroup were also identical. Only the prototype of type 16 (Ch 79) showed a cross-neutralization with type 4, while four type 16 wild strains showed cross-neutralization with type 14, but none with type 4. The prototype (CH 79) is a "prime strain" in relation to the type 16 wild strains.

Adenoviridae↗

PubMed1985

Prototype matching: a strategy for social decision making.

College students responded to a series of questionnaires while they were in the process of selecting housing from a choice of seven available options for the coming fall. Questionnaires concerned their self-concepts, their housing prototypes, their preferences in housing, and their goals in housing selection. Overall analyses of the self-to-prototype matching strategy suggest that most students indeed prefer the type of housing for which their prototype of the "representative" resident most closely matches their self-perceptions. More important, we obtained individual differences in attention to self-fit in situations. Of individuals who reported that they had interpersonal goals in the housing selection task, those who reported that many personality characteristics (both positive and negative) were untrue of self were more systematic in their use of the self-to-prototype matching rule, this was also true of low self-monitors. Neither pattern of individual differences obtained for students with practical goals in the housing decision.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1986

Illness representations: a prototype approach.

Two experiments tested the hypothesis that laypeople cognitively organize and recall information about physical symptoms according to prototyped conceptions they have of physical diseases. Based on pilot studies that identified the extent to which subjects associated specified symptoms with specific diseases, symptom sets were assembled to vary in the extent to which the symptoms were perceived to be associated with (to be prototypical of) a given disease. Experiment 1 asked subjects to indicate whether a given set of symptoms indicated a disease and, if so, which one. Experiment 2 tested subjects' recall for symptom sets varying in prototypicality for given diseases and also tested the effects on recall of giving subjects a diagnosis. Results of both experiments support the prototype hypothesis that information about physical symptoms is organized and processed according to people's preexisting beliefs about the association between particular symptoms and diseases. Implications for illness behavior and help seeking are discussed.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1989

Training new, nonnative speech contrasts: a comparison of the prototype and perceptual fading techniques.

We trained unilingual adult Canadian francophone listeners to identify the English voiceless and voiced linguadental ("th") frictives, /theta/ and /delta/, using synthetic exemplars of each phoneme. Identification training with feedback improved listeners' abilities to identify both natural and synthetic tokens. These results show that training with appropriately selected prototype stimuli can produce a linguistically meaningful improvement in a listener's ability to identify new, nonnative speech sounds--both natural and synthetic. However, it is not yet clear whether such training with a single prototype can improve performance as effectively as the fading technique used by Jamieson and Morosan (1986), since prototype training produced only a moderate improvement in listeners' identifications of synthetic stimuli containing brief frication. Differences between the techniques may reflect the need for listeners to experience the appropriate types of intraphonemic and interphonemic variability during training. Such variability may help to define the category prototype by desensitizing the subjects to differences between exemplars of the same category and by sharpening sensitivity to differences between categories.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1986

Aging effects on prototype abstraction and concept identification.

The hypotheses that prototype abstraction is an automatic process unaffected by aging and that different aging effects associated with different types of concept learning can be accounted for by differential effortful memory process involvement were examined. Young and old adults were compared on tests of prototype abstraction and concept identification, and relationships between performance measures derived from these tasks and backward memory span were assessed. In the abstraction task, both age groups used prototypical organizational processes to structure incoming information, but age differences did exist in the specificity of the information used in prototype construction. Concept identification performance, however, declined with age, and the poorer performance of the old adults was related to their poorer memory skills. The results suggest that the different aging effects associated with different tests of conceptual skills are dependent upon the nature of the underlying processes.

Adult↗

PubMed1977

Properties of virus isolated from an epidemic of hand-foot-and-mouth disease in 1973 in the city of Matsue. Comparison with Coxsackievirus group A type 16 prototype.

The virus strains isolated from clinical cases in an epidemic of hand-foot-and-mouth disease in Matsue in 1973 were characterized and its properties were compared with those of the Coxsackievirus group A type 16 (CA 16) prototype strain. The virus isolated in 1973 was similar to CA16 prototype virus with respect to morphology in electron microscopy, resistance to ether and capability to replicate in meidum containing fluorodeoxyuridine. Cross neutralization tests using guinea-pig and horse antisera revealed that there was little or no detectable common antigen between the two viruses. The two viruses also differed in heat stability of virion infectivity: the 1973-viruses were much more resistant to heat than the prototype virus. Under one-step growth conditions in Vero cell cultures, growth rate and virus yield of the 1973-viruses were lower than those of CA16, but this property was independent of incubation temperatures, pH of culture medium and other culture conditions. Several other differences in property between the 2 strains are also described. It is concluded that the epidemic in 1973 was caused by a virus whose properties differed greatly from those of the CA16 prototype.

Animals↗