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At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed2005

Prevalences of zoonotic bacteria among seabirds in rehabilitation centers along the Pacific Coast of California and Washington, USA.

Many seabirds are rehabilitated annually by wildlife rehabilitation centers along the Pacific Coast, USA. Although various strains of zoonotic bacteria have been isolated from seabirds, risks to rehabilitators at these centers have not been well documented. From November 2001 through January 2003, we determined the prevalence of detectable enteric fauna by isolation and characterization of Gram-negative bacteria from cloacal swabs taken from 26 common murres (Uria aalge), 49 gulls (Larus spp.), and 14 other seabirds treated by rehabilitators in California and Washington (USA). At least 25 bacterial species were identified, including multiple strains of Escherichia coli, as well as Enterobacter cloacae, Citrobacter freundii, and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Antibiotic resistance was found in 13 of 19 bacterial isolates tested, including E. coli, K. pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumanii, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Potential transfer of these bacteria poses a risk to wildlife rehabilitators and to seabirds in these centers, as well as to free-ranging birds.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Monitoring of antimicrobial resistance among food animals: principles and limitations.

Large amounts of antimicrobial agents are in the production of food animals used for therapy and prophylactics of bacterial infections and in feed to promote growth. The use of antimicrobial agents causes problems in the therapy of infections through the selection for resistance among bacteria pathogenic for animals or humans. Current knowledge regarding the occurrence of antimicrobial resistance in food animals, the quantitative impact of the use of different antimicrobial agents on selection for resistance and the most appropriate treatment regimes to limit the development of resistance is incomplete. Programmes monitoring the occurrence and development of resistance are essential to determine the most important areas for intervention and to monitor the effects of interventions. When designing a monitoring programme it is important to decide on the purpose of the programme. Thus, there are major differences between programmes designed to detect changes in a national population, individual herds or groups of animals. In addition, programmes have to be designed differently according to whether the aim is to determine changes in resistance for all antimicrobial agents or only the antimicrobial agents considered most important in relation to treatment of humans. In 1995 a continuous surveillance for antimicrobial resistance among bacteria isolated from food animals was established in Denmark. Three categories of bacteria, indicator bacteria, zoonotic bacteria and animal pathogens are continuously isolated from broilers, cattle and pigs and tested for susceptibility to antimicrobial agents used for therapy and growth promotion by disc diffusion or minimal inhibitory concentration determinations. This programme will only detect changes on a national level. However, isolating the bacteria and testing for several antimicrobial agents will enable us to determine the effect of linkage of resistance. Since 1995 major differences in the consumption pattern of different antimicrobial agents have occurred in Denmark. The Danish monitoring programme has enabled us to determine the effect of these changes on the occurrence of resistance. The Danish monitoring is, however, not suited to determine changes on a herd level or to detect emergence of new types of resistance only occurring at a low level.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Occurrence, selection and spread of resistance to antimicrobial agents used for growth promotion for food animals in Denmark.

UNLABELLED: 14.1 INTRODUCTION: This thesis is based on a number of monitoring and research programmes initiated at the Danish Veterinary Laboratory with the aim to determine the occurrence, selection and spread of resistance to antimicrobial agents used for growth promotion. The thesis gives a brief overview of the use, consumption, function and benefit of antimicrobial growth promoters and a more thorough description of the potential resistance problems arising by the use of these agents. 14.2 THE USE OF ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS IN A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE: Soon after the introduction of antimicrobial agents for therapy of bacterial infections in humans and animals, the growth promoting effect of antimicrobial agents was observed, and since the beginning of the 1950'ties antimicrobial agents have been included in feed for food animals as a way to improve growth and reduce production costs. 14.3 CONSUMPTION OF ANTIMICROBIAL GROWTH PROMOTERS: Exact figures on the consumption of antimicrobial agents for clinical and growth promoting purposes are very difficult to get, and estimates are only available for a few countries. In Denmark, the total annual consumption of antimicrobial agents for growth promotion increased from 67 tonnes to 116 tonnes from 1989 to 1995. After the ban on avoparcin in 1995 the total consumption of growth promoters decreased to 94 tonnes. An increase up to 107 tonnes took place during 1996 and 1997, but during 1998, the consumption decreased to approximately 49 tonnes. The data that are available for different countries show that the use of antimicrobial agents for growth promotion normally equals or exceeds the usage of antimicrobial agents for therapy for food animals. Based on the information available, it can be estimated that the financial sale of antimicrobial agents for animals amounts to approximately 25% to 35% of the world-wide sale, of which the use of antimicrobial agents as feed additives is at least 50%. 14.4 MODE OF ACTION OF ANTIMICROBIAL GROWTH PROMOTERS: The mode of action of antimicrobial growth promoters is not fully understood. However, the main effects are believed to be a reduction of the growth of bacteria in the intestinal tract and thereby less microbial degradation of useful nutritients, and the prevention of infections with pathogenic bacteria. 14.5 BENEFIT FROM THE USE OF ANTIMICROBIAL GROWTH PROMOTERS: Numerous studies on the economic benefit of the use of antimicrobial growth promoters have been performed. The growth response is normally larger in young animals than in older animals. Large variations in the estimates have been observed, but in general a improvement in growth rate and feed utilisation has been observed. 14.6 SUSCEPTIBILITY AND RESISTANCE TO ANTIMICROBIAL GROWTH PROMOTERS: The definition of a bacterium as susceptible or resistant to an antimicrobial agent ultimately depends on clinical outcome. Since the exact mode of action of antimicrobial growth promoters are not known, the only way to define break points is based on the population distributions of susceptibilities to different agents. For antimicrobial agents used both for therapy and growth promotion the break points for therapy have been used. For avilamycin, avoparcin, flavomycin, monensin and salinomycin, that are used for growth promotion only, tentative break points based on population distributions have to be defined. The tentative break points for avoparcin and avilamycin have been confirmed by cross-resistance to other antimicrobial agents belonging to the same class and the presence of resistance mechanisms. 14.7 OCCURRENCE OF AND SELECTION FOR RESISTANCE TO ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS USED FOR GROWTH PROMOTION: Information on the occurrence of resistance is needed to guide policy and detect changes that require intervention strategies. In 1995, a continuous monitoring of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria isolated from food animals was established in Denmark. Among food animals three categories of bacteria (indicator bacteria, zoonotic bacteria and animal pathogens) are continuously isolated from broilers, cattle and pigs and tested for susceptibility to antimicrobial agents used for therapy and growth promotion by disc diffusion or MIC-determinations. In all known cases antimicrobial resistance has emerged following the introduction of new antimicrobial compounds for therapy. The occurrence of resistance to antimicrobial agents used for growth promotion indicates that resistance will also emerge following the introduction of antimicrobials for growth promotion. Comparison of the occurrence of resistance among reservoirs with different usage of antimicrobial agents for growth promotion also shows that the occurrence of resistance will follow the usage. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATED)

Animal Husbandry↗
PubMed1999

Transfer of antibiotic resistant bacteria from animals to man.

Antibiotic resistance develops in zoonotic bacteria in response to antibiotics used in food animals. A close association exists between the amounts of antibiotics used and the levels of resistance observed. The classes of antibiotics routinely used for treatment of human infections are also used for animals either for therapy or for growth promotion. Antibiotic resistance in zoonotic bacteria constitute a public health hazard, primarily through the increased risk of treatment failures. This paper describes the zoonotic bacteria, salmonella, campylobacter, yersinia and entero-haemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC). Infections with these agents do not generally require antibiotic therapy, but in some cases antibiotics are essential to obtain a successful cure. The levels and types of resistance observed in zoonotic bacteria in some countries, especially the increasing levels of fluoroquinolone resistance in salmonella and campylobacter, gives cause for concern. The principles of controlling resistance development involve infection control at herd level and prudent use of antibiotics.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

A prevalence survey for zoonotic enteric bacteria in a research monkey colony with specific emphasis on the occurrence of enteric Yersinia.

Transmissible pathogenic and opportunistic zoonotic enteric bacteria comprise a recognized occupational health threat to exposed humans from non-human primates (NHPs). In an effort to evaluate the occurrence of selected enteric organisms with zoonotic and biohazard potential in a research colony setting, we performed a prevalence study examining 61 juvenile and young adult rhesus macaques participating in a transplant immunology project. Primary emphasis was directed specifically to detection of pathogenic enteric Yersinia, less well-documented and reported NHP pathogens possessing recognized significant human disease potential. NHPs were surveyed by rectal culture during routine health monitoring on three separate occasions, and samples incubated using appropriate media and specific selective culture methods. Enteric organisms potentially transmissible to humans were subcultured and identified to genus and species. Significant human pathogens of the Salmonella/Shigella, Campylobacter, and enteric Yersinia groups were not isolated throughout the survey, suggesting prevalence of these organisms may generally be quite low.

Animal Technicians↗
PubMed1999

Prevalence and infection risks of zoonotic enteropathogenic bacteria in Swiss cow-calf farms.

A longitudinal study was performed in 67 larger Swiss cow-calf farms from September 1996 through November 1997. The objectives of the study were to estimate prevalence and risk factors for colonization with potentially zoonotic enteropathogenic bacteria in younger calves and in calves at weaning age. The study included data from 395 calves with three to four fecal samples each. Fecal samples were analyzed for Campylobacter spp., verotoxin producing E. coli (VTEC), Yersinia spp. and Salmonella sp. Possible environmental and individual factors associated with colonization of these agents were examined. The calves were housed indoor during the first 3 months of life (winter 1996/1997). The prevalences within this time period were: C. coli 3.4%, C. fetus 15.5%, C. hyointestinalis 9.6%, C. jejuni 38.5%, VTEC 44.3% and Yersinia spp. 2%. At the end of the grazing season the prevalences at weaning (8-10 months of age) were: C. coli 1.7%, C. fetus 4.0%, C. hyointestinalis 25.9%, C. jejuni 13.3%, VTEC 38.2% and Yersinia spp. 0%. No salmonellae were present at any time of the study. The prevalences of C. jejuni and VTEC increased significantly within the first 3 months of life, whereas C. hyointestinalis decreased. None of the environmental factors such as housing or feeding had any consistent influences on colonization by the bacteria studied. VTEC, Campylobacter spp. and Yersinia spp. should probably be considered as normal inhabitants of the bovine intestinal tract. However, as they represent a source of gastrointestinal infections in humans, management factors limiting intestinal colonization of these bacteria should be considered in cow-calf operations.

Agglutination Tests↗
PubMed1998

Surveillance of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria isolated from food animals to antimicrobial growth promoters and related therapeutic agents in Denmark.

This study was conducted to describe the occurrence of acquired resistance to antimicrobials used for growth promotion among bacteria isolated from swine, cattle and poultry in Denmark. Resistance to structurally related therapeutic agents was also examined. Three categories of bacteria were tested: 1) indicator bacteria (Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium), 2) zoonotic bacteria (Campylobacter, Salmonella, Yersinia enterocolitica), and 3) animal pathogens (E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus, coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS), Staphylococcus hyicus, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae). All antimicrobials used as growth promoters in Denmark and some structurally related therapeutic agents (in brackets) were included: Avilamycin, avoparcin (vancomycin), bacitracin, carbadox, flavomycin, monensin, olaquindox, salinomycin, spiramycin (erythromycin, lincomycin), tylosin (erythromycin, lincomycin), and virginiamycin (pristinamycin). Bacterial species intrinsically resistant to an antimicrobial were not tested towards that antimicrobial. Breakpoints for growth promoters were established by population distribution of the bacteria tested. A total of 2,372 bacterial isolates collected during October 1995 to September 1996 were included in the study. Acquired resistance to all currently used growth promoting antimicrobials was found. A frequent occurrence of resistance were observed to avilamycin, avoparcin, bacitracin, flavomycin, spiramycin, tylosin and virginiamycin, whereas resistance to carbadox, monensin, olaquindox and salinomycin was less frequent. The occurrence of resistance varied by animal origin and bacterial species. The highest levels of resistance was observed among enterococci, whereas less resistance was observed among zoonotic bacteria and bacteria pathogenic to animals. The association between the occurrence of resistance and the consumption of the antimicrobial is discussed. The results show the present level of resistance to growth promoters in bacteria from food animals in Denmark. They will form the baseline for comparison with future prospective studies, thereby enabling the determination of trends over time.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Effect of a 5 day enrofloxacin treatment on Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium DT104 in the pig.

OBJECTIVES: There are concerns that the use of enrofloxacin in livestock production may contribute to the development of fluoroquinolone resistance in zoonotic bacteria. The objective of our study was to investigate the effect of a single 5 day enrofloxacin treatment on Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium DT104 in a pig model. RESULTS: Our results showed that a single treatment failed to eradicate S. Typhimurium DT104, which continued to be isolated up to 35 days after treatment. We also provide evidence that treatment positively selects for S. Typhimurium DT104 strains that are already nalidixic acid resistant (gyrA Asn-87) or cyclohexane resistant, the latter being indicative of an up-regulated efflux pump. Emergence of fluoroquinolone resistance was not detected during treatment or post-treatment in any of the Salmonella strains monitored. However, the effect of enrofloxacin on the nalidixic acid-resistant and cyclohexane-resistant S. Typhimurium DT104 outlasted the current withdrawal time of 10 days for Baytril (commercial veterinary formulation of enrofloxacin). CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, our study has provided direct evidence that enrofloxacin-treated pigs could be entering abattoirs with higher numbers of quinolone-resistant zoonotic bacteria than untreated pigs, increasing the risk of these entering the food chain.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Resistance to antimicrobial agents used for animal therapy in pathogenic-, zoonotic- and indicator bacteria isolated from different food animals in Denmark: a baseline study for the Danish Integrated Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring Programme (DANMAP).

This study describes the establishment and first results of a continuous surveillance system of antimicrobial resistance among bacteria isolated from pigs, cattle and broilers in Denmark. The three categories of bacteria tested were: 1) indicator bacteria (Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium), 2) zoonotic bacteria (Campylobacter coli/jejuni, Salmonella enterica, Yersinia enterocolitica), and 3) animal pathogens (E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus, coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS), Staphylococcus hyicus, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae). A total of 3304 bacterial isolates collected from October 1995 through December 1996 were tested for susceptibility to all major classes of antimicrobial agents used for therapy in Denmark. Bacterial species intrinsically resistant to an antimicrobial were not tested towards that antimicrobial. Acquired resistance to all antimicrobials was found. The occurrence of resistance varied by animal origin and bacterial species. In general, resistance was observed more frequently among isolates from pigs than from cattle and broilers. The association between the occurrence of resistance and the consumption of the antimicrobial is discussed, as is the occurrence of resistance in other countries. The results of this study show the present level of resistance to antimicrobial agents among a number of bacterial species isolated from food animals in Denmark. Thus, the baseline for comparison with future prospective studies has been established, enabling the determination of trends over time.

Animal Diseases↗
PubMed2004

A European survey of antimicrobial susceptibility among zoonotic and commensal bacteria isolated from food-producing animals.

OBJECTIVE: To study antimicrobial resistance in zoonotic bacteria isolated from food animals in different countries using uniform methodology. METHODS: Samples were taken at slaughter from chickens, pigs and cattle in four EU countries per host. Escherichia coli (indicator organism; n = 2118), Salmonella spp. (n = 271) and Campylobacter spp. (n = 1325) were isolated in national laboratories and MICs tested in a central laboratory against, where appropriate, ampicillin, cefepime, cefotaxime, ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol, erythromycin, gentamicin, nalidixic acid, streptomycin, tetracycline and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole. RESULTS: Isolation rates were high for E. coli, low for Salmonella and intermediate for Campylobacter. MIC results showed resistance prevalence varied among compounds, hosts and countries. For E. coli and Salmonella, resistance to newer compounds (cefepime, cefotaxime, ciprofloxacin) was absent or low, but to older compounds (except gentamicin), resistance was variable and higher. E. coli isolates from Sweden showed low resistance, whereas among isolates from Spain (pigs), resistance to ampicillin, chloramphenicol, streptomycin, tetracycline and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole was higher; the UK, France, the Netherlands, Germany, Italy and Denmark were intermediate. For Campylobacter spp. isolates from chickens, nalidixic acid and ciprofloxacin resistance was >30% in France and the Netherlands, >6% in the UK and zero in Sweden. Nalidixic acid resistance was high in cattle (20%-64%), whereas ciprofloxacin resistance was markedly lower in cattle, variable in pigs (3%-21%) and highest in Sweden. Generally, Campylobacter coli was more resistant than Campylobacter jejuni. CONCLUSION: Antimicrobial resistance among enteric organisms in food animals varied among countries, particularly for older antimicrobials, but resistance to newer compounds used to treat disease in humans was generally low.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Epidemiology of resistance to antibiotics. Links between animals and humans.

An inevitable side effect of the use of antibiotics is the emergence and dissemination of resistant bacteria. Most retrospective and prospective studies show that after the introduction of an antibiotic not only the level of resistance of pathogenic bacteria, but also of commensal bacteria increases. Commensal bacteria constitute a reservior of resistance genes for (potentially) pathogenic bacteria. Their level of resistance is considered to be a good indicator for selection pressure by antibiotic use and for resistance problems to be expected in pathogens. Resistant commensal bacteria of food animals might contaminate, like zoonotic bacteria, meat (products) and so reach the intestinal tract of humans. Monitoring the prevalence of resistance in indicator bacteria such as faecal Escherichia coli and enterococci in different populations, animals, patients and healthy humans, makes it feasible to compare the prevalence of resistance and to detect transfer of resistant bacteria or resistance genes from animals to humans and vice versa. Only in countries that use or used avoparcin (a glycopeptide antibiotic, like vancomycin) as antimicrobial growth promoter (AMGP), is vancomycin resistance common in intestinal enterococci, not only in exposed animals, but also in the human population outside hospitals. Resistance genes against antibiotics, that are or have only been used in animals, i.e. nourseothricin, apramycin etc. were found soon after their introduction, not only in animal bacteria but also in the commensal flora of humans, in zoonotic pathogens like salmonellae, but also in strictly human pathogens, like shigellae. This makes it clear that not only clonal spread of resistant strains occurs, but also transfer of resistance genes between human and animal bacteria. Moreover, since the EU ban of avoparcin, a significant decrease has been observed in several European countries in the prevalence of vancomycin resistant enterococci in meat (products), in faecal samples of food animals and healthy humans, which underlines the role of antimicrobial usage in food animals in the selection of bacterial resistance and the transport of these resistances via the food chain to humans. To safeguard public health, the selection and dissemination of resistant bacteria from animals should be controlled. This can only be achieved by reducing the amounts of antibiotics used in animals. Discontinuing the practice of routinely adding AMGP to animal feeds would reduce the amounts of antibiotics used for animals in the EU by a minimum of 30% and in some member states even by 50%.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed1999

Design of a system for monitoring antimicrobial resistance in pathogenic, zoonotic and indicator bacteria from food animals.

DANMAP is a Danish programme for integrated monitoring of and research on antimicrobial resistance in bacteria from food animals, food and humans. The paper describes how bacteria from broilers, pigs, and cattle are collected, as well as the procedures for data handling and presentation of results. The bacteria from animals include certain pathogens, selected so that they are representative for submissions to Danish diagnostic laboratories, as well as zoonotic bacteria (Campylobacter, Salmonella and Yersinia) and indicator bacteria (E. coli, E. faecium and E. faecalis), from samples collected at abattoirs. The latter samples are selected so that they are representative of the respective animal populations. Therefore, the apparent prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in the populations may be calculated. The isolates are identified to species level and the results of susceptibility testing are stored as continuous variables. All isolates are maintained in a strain collection so that they are available for subsequent research projects. The data handling facilities makes it possible to present results as percent resistant isolates or as the apparent prevalence of resistance in the population, or alternatively as graphical distributions of mm inhibition zones or MIC values. Computer routines have been established that make it possible to detect specific phenotypic expressions of resistance that may be of particular interest.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Veterinary use of antimicrobials and emergence of resistance in zoonotic and sentinel bacteria in the EU.

Antimicrobials are essential for treatment of sick animals, but even if used correctly, may eventually lead to antimicrobial resistance. While this represents a potential hazard to humans, the great majority of resistant human pathogens, especially the more important ones, are unrelated to animal sources. A survey of informed medical opinion suggested that of the human antimicrobial resistance problem, <4% was seen as potentially linked to animal sources. This proportion related largely to zoonotic bacteria which by definition have the capacity to carry resistance between species, although the evidence for resulting harm remains limited. A recent study compared resistance among chicken, pig and cattle isolates of Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp. and Escherichia coli from a series of EU countries. When tested against antimicrobial agents, this survey showed variation of resistance between countries, between hosts and between organisms. Such variation may give insight into preferred methods of antimicrobial administration or disease control, but it is clear that the epidemiology of antimicrobial resistance induction and dissemination in animals remains complex and is yet to be fully understood.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Towards the establishment and standardization of a veterinary antimicrobial resistance surveillance and monitoring programme in South Africa.

The objective of this study was to establish a repeatable, standardized laboratory procedure for monitoring the development of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria isolated from animals and food of animal origin in South Africa, with reagents prepared in-house. The emergence of resistance and the spread of resistant bacteria can be limited by implementing a veterinary antimicrobial drug policy, in which inter alia systematic monitoring and prudent use play essential roles. The bacteria included in this study represented three different categories, namely zoonotic bacteria (Salmonella), indicator bacteria (Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium) and veterinary pathogens (Mannheimia haemolytica). Thirty isolates of each species were collected with the aim of standardizing the laboratory methodology for a future national veterinary surveillance and monitoring programme. Susceptibility to ten selected antimicrobial drugs was determined by means of minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) using the microdilution method. The method according to the National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards was used as the standard. Multi-well plates containing varying dilutions of antimicrobial drugs and prepared in-house for MIC determinations, yielded repeatable results. Storage of plates for 2 months at -70 degrees C did not influence results meaningfully. Within this limited sample of bacteria, MIC results did not indicate meaningful resistance against any of the ten selected antimicrobial drugs. The findings of the study will be used to establish a national veterinary antimicrobial resistance surveillance and monitoring programme in South Africa. To allow for international comparison of data, harmonisation of the surveillance and monitoring programme in accordance with global trends is encouraged. Ideally it should be combined with a programme monitoring the quantities of antimicrobial drugs used. The aim is to contribute to slowing down the emergence of resistance and the problems associated with this phenomenon by means of the rational use of antimicrobial drugs.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Genes and mutations conferring antimicrobial resistance in Salmonella: an update.

Resistance to various classes of antimicrobial agents has been encountered in many bacteria of medical and veterinary relevance. Particular attention has been paid to zoonotic bacteria such as Salmonella. Over the years, various studies have reported the presence of genes and mutations conferring resistance to antimicrobial agents in Salmonella isolates. This review is intended to provide an update on what is currently known about the genetic basis of antimicrobial resistance in Salmonella.

Anti-Infective Agents↗
PubMed2000

Monitoring of antibiotic resistance in bacteria of animal origin: epidemiological and microbiological methodologies.

The occurrence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in food animals is a major public health threat. Information on the prevalence of resistance to specific drugs in both bacterial and animal species together with changes occurring over time, are necessary to understand the magnitude of the problem and to establish baselines for taking action. The aim of this paper is to define the minimum epidemiological and microbiological requirements for establishing a surveillance of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria of animal origin. Surveillance should involve different bacterial species, veterinary pathogens, zoonotic bacteria and commensal bacteria used as indicators. The collected data should be periodically updated and the reports distributed among practising veterinarians and regulatory authorities. These reports would be a useful tool for developing guidelines for the prudent use of antimicrobial agents in veterinary medicine and for action strategies.

Animal Diseases↗
PubMed2006

Susceptibility of bacteria isolated from pigs to tiamulin and enrofloxacin metabolites.

Susceptibilities to metabolites of tiamulin (TIA) and enrofloxacin (ENR) were tested using selected bacteria with previously defined minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC). The TIA metabolites tested were: N-deethyl-tiamulin (DTIA), 2beta-hydroxy-tiamulin (2beta-HTIA) and 8alpha-hydroxy-tiamulin (8alpha-HTIA), and the ENR metabolites were: ciprofloxacin (CIP) and enrofloxacin N-oxide (ENR-N). Bacteria, all of porcine origin, were selected as representatives of bacterial infections (Staphylococcus hyicus and Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae), zoonotic bacteria (Campylobacter coli) and indicator bacteria (Escherichia coli and enterococci). Furthermore the effects of these compounds were tested on the microbial community of active sludge to test any negative effect on colony forming units (CFU). DTIA had a potency of 12.5-50% of the potency of TIA. 2beta-HTIA and 8alpha-HTIA had potencies less than 1% of the potency of TIA. ENR-N had a potency of 0.75-1.5% of the potency of ENR, while CIP and ENR had similar potencies. Results obtained here indicate that CIP and DTIA could contribute to the selective pressure for upholding antimicrobial resistant bacteria in animals under ENR or TIA treatment. The most potent metabolites CIP and DTIA showed considerable potencies against activated sludge bacteria compared to the parent compounds. EC(50) (microg/ml) for ENR, CIP, TIA and DTIA were 0.018 [95% CI: 0.028-0.149], 0.064 [95% CI: 0.007-0.046], 6.0 [95% CI: 3.6-9.8], and 9.7 [95% CI: 5.8-16.3], respectively. This indicates that the compounds can change the bacterial population in the sludge, and hereby alter the properties of the sludge.

Actinobacillus Infections↗
PubMed2002

Antibiotic resistance in food-related bacteria--a result of interfering with the global web of bacterial genetics.

A series of antibiotic resistance genes have been sequenced and found to be identical or nearly identical in various ecological environments. Similarly, genetic vectors responsible for assembly and mobility of antibiotic resistance genes, such as transposons, integrons and R plasmids of similar or identical type are also widespread in various niches of the environment. Many zoonotic bacteria carry antibiotic resistance genes directly from different food-producing environments to the human being. These circumstances may have a major impact on the degree for success in treating infectious diseases in man. Several recent examples demonstrate that use of antibiotics in all parts of the food production chain contributes to the increasing level of antibiotic resistance among the food-borne pathogenic bacteria. Modern industrialized food production adds extra emphasis on lowering the use of antibiotics in all parts of agriculture, husbandry and fish farming because these food products are distributed to very large numbers of humans compared to more traditional smaller scale niche production.

Animals↗