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The history of the electron microscope investigations in zoology and parasitology in the Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences and progress in scanning and transmission electron microscope investigations in this field of biology to the moment are briefly accounted.
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As a biological discipline, zoology has one of the longest histories. Today it occasionally appears as though, due to the rapid expansion of life sciences, zoology has been replaced by more or less independent sub-disciplines amongst which exchange is often sparse. However, the recent advance of molecular methodology into "classical" fields of biology, and the development of theories that can explain phenomena on different levels of organisation, has led to a re-integration of zoological disciplines promoting a broader than usual approach to zoological questions. Zoology has re-emerged as an integrative discipline encompassing the most diverse aspects of animal life, from the level of the gene to the level of the ecosystem.The new journal Frontiers in Zoology is the first Open Access journal focussing on zoology as a whole. It aims to represent and re-unite the various disciplines that look at animal life from different perspectives and at providing the basis for a comprehensive understanding of zoological phenomena on all levels of analysis. Frontiers in Zoology provides a unique opportunity to publish high quality research and reviews on zoological issues that will be internationally accessible to any reader at no cost.
Canada has four veterinary schools, from which approximately 325 veterinarians graduate each year. Curricular offerings in zoological medicine consist of limited core material and a variety of internal and external electives pursued by students with particular interests. Several electives are offered jointly by and rotate among the existing schools. All schools offer graduate programs that encompass some aspects of zoological medicine. A fifth veterinary school, expected to open in 2007, will have a stronger focus on ecosystem health and zoological medicine. In Canada, the most effective method of increasing educational opportunities in zoological medicine is likely through enhanced collaboration among the five schools. Employment opportunities exist in private veterinary practice and at universities, research establishments, provincial or federal governments, and zoological gardens and safari parks. Increasing recognition of the importance of ecosystem health and of the relevance of wildlife diseases to public and domestic animal health will likely result in additional opportunities for veterinarians with an interest in and knowledge of zoological medicine.
The recent multiplication of cladistic hypotheses for many zoological groups poses a challenge to zoological nomenclature following the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature: in order to account for these hypotheses, we will need many more ranks than currently allowed in this system, especially in lower taxonomy (around the ranks genus and species). The current Code allows the use of as many ranks as necessary in the family-series of nomina (except above superfamily), but forbids the use of more than a few ranks in the genus and species-series. It is here argued that this limitation has no theoretical background, does not respect the freedom of taxonomic thoughts or actions, and is harmful to zoological taxonomy in two respects at least: (1) it does not allow to express in detail hypothesized cladistic relationships among taxa at lower taxonomic levels (genus and species); (2) it does not allow to point taxonomically to low-level differentiation between populations of the same species, although this would be useful in some cases for conservation biology purposes. It is here proposed to modify the rules of the Code in order to allow use by taxonomists of an indeterminate number of ranks in all nominal-series. Such an 'expanded nomenclatural system' would be highly flexible and likely to be easily adapted to any new finding or hypothesis regarding cladistic relationships between taxa, at genus and species level and below. This system could be useful for phylogeographic analysis and in conservation biology. In zoological nomenclature, whereas robustness of nomina is necessary, the same does not hold for nomenclatural ranks, as the latter are arbitrary and carry no special biological, evolutionary or other information, except concerning the mutual relationships between taxa in the taxonomic hierarchy. Compared to the Phylocode project, the new system is equally unambiguous within the frame of a given taxonomic frame, but it provides more explicit and informative nomina for non-specialist users, and is more economic in terms of number of nomina needed to account for a given hierarchy. These ideas are exemplified by a comparative study of three possible nomenclatures for the taxonomy recently proposed by Hillis and Wilcox (2005) for American frogs traditionally referred to the genus Rana.
The American College of Zoological Medicine (ACZM) is dedicated to excellence in furthering the health and well-being of both captive and free-ranging wild animals. Currently there are 14 ACZM-approved residency programs in zoological medicine. In addition, eight non-approved residencies and 15 internships in North America provide training opportunities in this field. This article outlines some of the training opportunities for both veterinary students and graduate veterinarians that would best position them for entry into a zoological medicine training program. Although there is a growing number of opportunities for individuals to serve in captive and free-ranging wildlife health positions, existing training programs are inadequate to meet these needs. It is also acknowledged that there is an increasing number of veterinary students entering veterinary schools with an interest in zoological medicine and that the job market is still limited. However, positions and opportunities in zoological medicine are available for those individuals with the drive, dedication, and passion to succeed.
Advances have been made in expanding veterinary curricula to deliver basic key knowledge and skills necessary for provision of health care to captive and companion non-domestic or non-traditional species in the veterinary colleges of the United States and Canada. These advances were in large part facilitated by the deliberations and recommendations of the White Oak Accords. Though a five-year review of curricular opportunities at US and Canadian veterinary colleges shows that progress has been made in implementing the recommendations of the White Oak Accords, there remains room for improvement. The broadly comparative and health-maintenance basis of zoological medicine contributes critically to the potential for veterinary medicine to make important contributions to the concept of the integrated health of the planet. Emergence of key zoonotic and production-animal diseases derived from and within wildlife populations since 2000 has increased awareness worldwide of the importance of zoological medicine in protecting both production livestock and public health. These areas are addressed in elective curricula at colleges emerging as centers of excellence in zoological medicine, but it is critical that core curricula in zoological medicine at all schools be strengthened to include these important areas to prepare our DVM/VMD graduates to protect companion-animal, production-animal, and public health.
In May 1996 the Denver Zoological Gardens obtained two male and two female Pallas' cats (Otocolobus felis manul) that were wild-caught in the Ukraine. These animals were part of a group of 16 wild-caught adults (eight male and eight female) imported to the United States and Canada between 1995 and 1996. The Denver Zoological Gardens cats were quarantined at the zoo hospital for approximately I mo. During the quarantine period they were immobilized for physical examination, and sera were obtained from them to evaluate for exposure to Toxoplasma gondii. All cats were positive for T. gondii antibodies by latex agglutination (titers from 1:512 to 1:1,024). After being paired for breeding, one pair produced two litters, and another pair produced four litters, a total of 17 kittens between 1997 and 2001. Four kittens and two young adults died from a disseminated granulomatous and necrotizing inflammation consistent with toxoplasmosis. Toxoplasma gondii infection was confirmed in all six deceased cats by polymerase chain reaction performed on formalin-fixed tissues. An additional five kittens disappeared and were not available for necropsy. The fatality rate from toxoplasmosis was 35.3% (6/17) for cats that were available for necropsy and could have been as high as 64.7% (11/17) if it were assumed that the disappeared kittens were also affected. The Pallas' kitten survival rate at the Denver Zoological Gardens was 35.3%. This article describes the clinical and pathologic features of toxoplasmosis in a group of Pallas' cats at the Denver Zoological Gardens.
The first parasitological division in the Zoological Museum was created in 1924 by the initiative of E. N. Pavlovsky and A. A. Schtakelberg and originally had a named "The permanent commission on the study of malaria mosquitoes". In the process of reorganisation of the Zoological Museum into Zoological Institute in 1930, it was modified into the Department of Parasitology with the E. N. Pavlovsky as a head. In 1934-1935, two laboratories were formed within this department: the Laboratory arachno-entomology and Laboratory of parasitic worms. In subsequent history of ZIN, these parasitological laboratories existed at first as subdivisions of the Department of Parasitology and finally the they were reorganised into independent administrative divisions. The study of parasitic and blood-sucking arthropodes is concentrated in the Laboratory of Parasitology (the head Yu. S. Balashov). A creation of the most important concepts of ecological parasitology was taking place in the Zoological Institute in the middle of 30th. E. N. Pavlovsky for the first time had formulated the principle of an organism as an environment for parasites, the concept of communities of parasitic organisms (concept of parasitocoenosis), and the theory of natural focuses of transmissive diseases. In the process of development of these scientific generalisations, a scientific direction named "Academician E. N. Pavlovsky's school of thought in parasitology" was formed in the USSR in 40-50th. In the frame of this school of thought, the main tusks of the Laboratory of Parasitology ZIN are to work out fundamental problems in ecology, systematics and morphology of parasitic and blood-sucking ticks, mites and insects. Within the ecological parasitology, different aspects of host-parasite relationships are studied at organism and population levels. The main basis of systematics studies of parasitic arthropodes is a scientific collection including over 250,000 samples. Based on this material, 40 key books and monographs on the USSR's fauna were created. Over 20 doctors of science and 50 candidates of science have been prepared within the laboratory or under the promotion of its stuff during 70 years of the existence of the Laboratory of Parasitology.
In almost every branch of zoology the internet is now a vital place for posting up-to-date status reports on all kind of animal groups and research areas. Many websites not only provide the latest on taxonomy, ecology and distribution, but also include valuable background information and details of experimental procedures as well as discussion forums. For the zoologist the online world seems to hold everything from acarology to otoliths. To show what impressive things can be done in communicating and facilitating research in zoology, given a little initiative and perseverance, we will introduce websites that find fresh ways to approach their subjects and that may, in some way or another, inspire zoologists. Readers are welcome to join in this process for future editions of Zoology www guides and should send their website suggestions to tbosch@zoologie.uni-kiel.de. In this issue the focus is on molluscs.
Three hundred forty-five serum samples from 30 zoological animal species which had been imported into the United States were examined retrospectively for the presence of antibody to bluetongue viruses. Ninety eight (28.4%) were positive for antibody to bluetongue group antigen by the bluetongue agar gel immunodiffusion test. Bluetongue antibodies, most of which were against serotypes exotic to the United States, were detected in 13 animal species from Africa not previously reported to be infected by bluetongue virus. The lack of virus neutralizing antibody to any of the 20 known bluetongue virus types in four of the 28 positive serums studied may indicate the existence of new bluetongue virus serotypes, cross reactions with other orbiviruses or a more rapid decline of neutralizing than precipitating antibody. The possibility of recrudescence of bluetongue virus infection from some inapparently infected zoological animals and existence of a known bluetongue vector (Culicoides variipennis) in the United States would suggest that further assessment of bluetongue in zoological animals be made.
Pain and cognitive dissonance abounds amongst biologists: the plant-animal, botany-zoology wound has nearly healed and the new gash--revealed by department and budget reorganizations--is "molecular" vs. "organismic" biology. Here I contend that resolution of these tensions within zoology requires that an autopoietic-gaian view replace a mechanical-neodarwinian perspective; in the interest of brevity and since many points have been discussed elsewhere, rather than develop detailed arguments I must make staccato statements and refer to a burgeoning literature. The first central concept is that animals, all organisms developing from blastular embryos, evolved from single protist cells that were unable to reproduce their undulipodia. The second points to the usefulness of recognizing the analogy between cyclically established symbioses and meiotic sexuality.
The Zoological Station of Naples was founded in 1872 by Anton Dohrn as a research institute for zoology and comparative anatomy. Although the original fields of interest were the morphology of vertebrates and comparative embryology, a department of physiology was added to the station in 1888. Osmoregulation in marine organisms has been extensively studied, notably by Bottazzi, who investigated chemical composition, electrical conductivity, surface tension, osmotic pressure and extracellular viscosity in circulating fluids in man and lower animals. Bottazzi classified aquatic animals into 2 groups, a distinction that is accepted today. More recent workers at the station include Bern, who made important contributions to the study of the essential role played by prolactin in regulation of hydromineral metabolism in euryhaline teleost fish in a freshwater environment.
Histological examination revealed the gullet worm (Gongylonema pulchrum) embedded in the lingual mucosa of two of four dead Bolivian squirrel monkeys (Saimiri boliviensis) from a zoological garden in Kyushu, Japan. The zoo had kept the monkeys as a colony of approximately 80-100 individuals in a moated, open ground since 1981. To assess the incidence of G. pulchrum infection in this colony, lingual scraping with disposable plastic sticks was conducted in February during 2 consecutive years (2003 and 2004). The oval, thick-shelled egg containing a larva was found in 15 of 27 arbitrarily-chosen adult monkeys (55.5%) in 2003, and 27 of 106 monkeys (25.5%) in 2004. Infection of other zoo-kept mammals with G. pulchrum was not assessed. Since the gullet worm infects a variety of mammals including primates as natural definitive hosts, and dung beetles and cockroaches as intermediate hosts, the zoological garden may provide an ideal environment for the parasite. Zoo veterinarians should be aware of this disease in kept mammals, and should consider in the case of primates, monthly or bimonthly prophylactic anthelmintic treatment.
As in the previous issue of Zoology, we introduce here web sites which are of interest for zoologists. Readers are welcome to make website suggestions for future editions of Zoology and should contact tbosch@zoologie.uni-kiel.de. In this issue the focus is on amphibians and reptiles.