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Compared performance on Rey Auditory-Verbal Learning Test and California Verbal Learning Test. Slightly higher scores were obtained on CVLT variables. No significant differences were found for order of test administration. Results were interpreted to show minimal practice effects for different list-learning tests administered in the same test battery.
Performances of moderate and severe closed-head-injury patients were compared on the California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT) and Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT). Results showed that raw scores were highly correlated between tests. There were no significant between-test differences in mean raw scores. However, standard scores calculated from existing CVLT and RAVLT norms were significantly lower on the CVLT than on the RAVLT. Furthermore, there were differences between the various RAVLT norm sets. The results indicate that although the CVLT and RAVLT measure similar cognitive processes in closed-head-injury patients, there are major discrepancies in test interpretation using existing norms. Test and norm set selection significantly influence the likelihood of a patient being classified as memory-impaired.
We examined the validity of the revised Hopkins Verbal Learning Test (HVLT-R) by comparing performances on the HVLT-R and the California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT) in participants with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Total learning, delayed recall, intrusion errors, and recognition performance were significantly related across tests, but the number of perseverative responses showed no linear association. Despite similar results across measures, some of the variables were only modestly correlated, which may reflect differences in test procedures and the limited range of scores for some variables. Furthermore, the HVLT-R may not be challenging enough to elicit some of the types of recall errors commonly seen in AD to the same extent as the CVLT Nonetheless, the HVLT-R shows promise for providing a multidimensional assessment of verbal learning and memory and may be ideal in cases where brief assessment ofmemory and/or serial evaluations are needed.
Impairment in list learning is considered a primary symptom of Alzheimer's disease (AD), yet there are no published reports examining the relationship between list learning and severity of cognitive impairment. We gave nine-item and 16-item versions of the California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT; Delis et al., 1987), a standardized shopping list assessment of memory, to 24 AD patients (mean age = 76.2 +/- 8.1; mean years of education = 13.8 +/- 2.4), who were stratified into four groups based on MMSE scores (mean = 16.0 +/- 5.6). ANOVAs revealed severity effects for total list learning (p < 0.001), the first trial (p < 0.001), the last trial (p < 0.001) and short- and long-delay recall measures. Most of these differences seemed due to floor effects. For example, the modal number of words recalled after a delay was 0 by subjects with MMSE scores below 21. Severity of cognitive impairment was associated with the proportion of intrusions such that the most severely demented subjects gave almost entirely intrusion responses. Surprisingly, list length did not significantly affect any of the free recall measures. Our results suggest that list learning and recall seem to be lost relatively early in AD. Measures of list recall like the CVLT may not be useful in tracking severity of cognitive impairment over time.
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OBJECTIVE: To determine whether cognitive function improves with improved glycemic control in older subjects with non-insulin-dependent diabetes (NIDDM). We hypothesized that with improved glycemic control: 1) learning and memory, 2) attention, and 3) complex perceptual-motor function would improve, but that 4) simple perceptual-motor function would not. DESIGN: Non-randomized control trial. SETTING: Aging Study Unit, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center. SUBJECTS: Thirty subjects with NIDDM; 17 on oral hypoglycemic agents; 13 untreated at study entry. Thirteen normal controls. INTERVENTION: Subjects on oral hypoglycemic agents were taken off medications. After 1 month, they and previously untreated subjects began treatment with glipizide. Dose was titrated up weekly until fasting plasma glucose was less than 7.8 mmol/L or maximal dose (40 mg/day). Controls received no medication. MEASUREMENTS: Fasting plasma glucose (FPG), glycated hemoglobin, and measures of cognitive function in four general categories: 1) learning and memory, 2) ability to sustain attention, 3) complex perceptual-motor function, and 4) simple perceptual-motor function. All were evaluated in subjects with NIDDM at baseline (T1), after 1-month washout (T2), and after 2 (T3) and 4 months (T4) of optimal glycemic control or maximal dose. Controls were evaluated at the same intervals. RESULTS: FPG and glycated hemoglobin rose in previously treated subjects from T1 to T2 (9.4 +/- SEM 0.4 to 14.7 +/- 0.7 mmol/L and 10.9 +/- 0.7% to 12.2 +/- 0.6%, respectively) but were unchanged in previously untreated subjects (11.3 +/- 0.6 to 11.8 +/- 0.9 mmol/L and 10.9 +/- 0.7% to 11.7 +/- 0.7%). With glipizide treatment, there was a decrease in FPG level at T3 (9.4 +/- 0.5 mmol/L in previously treated, 6.9 +/- 0.4 mmol/L in previously untreated), which persisted at T4. Glycated hemoglobin fell similarly. FPG and glycated hemoglobin were unchanged in controls. As hypothesized, learning and memory improved over time with treatment in both groups of subjects but was unchanged in controls (P < 0.05). Detailed analysis indicated that the improvement occurred primarily in the learning of verbal material. Contrary to hypothesis, attention and complex perceptual-motor function did not show improvement. As expected, simple perceptual-motor function did not show any improvement with treatment. CONCLUSIONS: The results are consistent with previous findings that poor glycemic control in older subjects with NIDDM is associated with decreased cognitive functioning, and suggest that verbal learning and memory may improve with improved glycemic control.
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Verbal learning was assessed according to the Selective Reminding Test (SRT) in order to establish normative data and to provide a comparison with measures of immediate attention, verbal IQ, and verbal memory. The 392 subjects, stratified by sex (202 women, 190 men), age (4 groups: 16-70 years), and education (3 groups), were free of conflicting pathologies. Learning curves were established on centiles (75, 50, 25, 5). Sex differences favoring women were found in percent of finishers (those who reached criterion), and at all percentile levels of acquisition. Data were analyzed for group differences in performance on the SRT and related concurrent measures, but sex differences were not found on the VIQ or immediate attention tests. Also, assumptions of age and education stratification were not confirmed. However, those who completed the task were better able to form associational strategies than those who were unable to finish. The present data indicate that it is important to use detailed norms by gender and criterion level if clinical interpretations are to be valid.
The California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT) is a widely used measure of verbal learning and memory; however, there is little empirical evidence about the effects of the administration procedure on the test results. The primary goal of this study was to examine the effect of the semantic cuing condition on subsequent free recall of the material. A secondary goal was to assess whether prior knowledge that the words on the list are drawn from four semantic categories would enhance recall. Participants were 154 young healthy adults. The results suggested that participants who received semantic cuing according to the standardized test instructions generated the same number of correct words on the delayed free recall of the list as did those who did not receive cuing. Cuing did, however, lead participants to use greater semantic clustering in their delayed recall of the list. Participants who were provided with information prior to learning about the semantic structure of the test did not show enhanced learning relative to those who did not receive this information. We conclude that semantic cuing on the CVLT does not substantially enhance delayed recall of the material in healthy participants, although it is quite possible that cuing would have a greater effect in patients who have poor semantic organizational skills.
The California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT) is designed to quantify components of verbal learning, retention and retrieval. The present study used multiple regression analyses to correct for demographic characteristics on CVLT performance measures. There were 906 subjects, of whom 549 were Caucasians (61%) and 357 were African Americans (39%). Age, education, ethnicity, and gender were found to be significant predictors of performance on several CVLT indices, including Total Words Recalled, Trial 1, Trial 5, List B, Short Delay Free Recall (SDFR), and Long Delay Free Recall (LDFR). Demographically corrected T-scores were calculated for a base sample of 672 subjects and cross-validated on 234 separate subjects. Tables and regression equations are offered to convert raw scores into T-scores corrected for age, gender, education, and ethnicity. Demographically corrected Recognition Discriminability cutoff scores were calculated for age and education levels. In order to provide some indices of important memory processes, we also computed indices of retrieval, Short-Delay forgetting and Long-Delay forgetting and present normative information for them.
Although sex differences in verbal learning and memory have been reported in adults, much less is known about when these sex differences emerge and how they develop. In this study, 401 boys and 410 girls between the ages of 5 and 16 years were administered the California Verbal Learning Test--Children's Version. Sex differences were found at all age levels. Girls performed better than boys on all of the immediate and delayed recall trials and on the delayed recognition trial. Girls were also more likely than boys to use a semantic clustering strategy and displayed more effective long-term memory mechanisms. Boys made more intrusion errors and displayed greater vulnerability to interference between the 2 test lists. Because boys had higher mean scores on Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children--Revised Vocabulary, the observed female superiority in verbal learning could not be attributed to sex differences in overall word knowledge.
The California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT) was utilized to identify the quantitative and qualitative alterations in verbal learning and memory performance that discriminated between patients following partial resection of the left (dominant) (n = 26) or right (nondominant) (n = 31) temporal lobe. Patients were administered the CVLT preoperatively and 6 months postoperatively, and the differential effects of laterality of resection on verbal learning and memory performance were determined. Following left temporal resection, patients showed significantly more serial clustering, a lower proportion of words recalled from the middle of the list, and more intrusion errors in free recall. Patients who underwent right temporal resection showed significantly greater recall of words from the middle and fewer words from the end of the list, more semantic clustering, and greater ability to recall verbal material after a short delay. These findings suggest that anterior temporal lobectomy (ATL) results in changes in the way verbal material is acquired, and affects the rate of forgetting. Patients who undergo left ATL become more dependent on less effective and efficient learning strategies, and forget the material that they have acquired at a faster rate. The opposite tendencies characterize patients who undergo right ATL.
The California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT; Delis, Kramer, Kaplan, & Ober, 1987) was administered to patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer disease (AD) (Group AD; n = 13) and to a control group of normal older adults (Group NC; n = 13) matched on age and education. Two measures were used to determine whether primary memory (PM) is impaired in early AD. One measure, considered a relatively "pure" measure of PM, is based on the procedure developed by Tulving and Colotla (1970) which considers an item to be recalled from PM if no more than six items intervene between its presentation and recall. The other measure is the more commonly used recall from recency. No significant difference between the AD and NC Groups was found, both on the Tulving and Colotla measure, as well as on the recall from recency measure of PM. A significant difference was obtained on two measures of secondary memory (SM), namely, Tulving and Colotla's measure and recall from the primacy and middle regions of the list of words. In comparison to NC, and AD patients showed little evidence of learning over the five trials, and poor retention even over short delays. In addition, the patients with AD showed deficits in clustering words by taxonomic category at recall. We conclude that impairment in PM cannot be used as a diagnostic marker of AD in the early stages of the disease process.
Several recent investigations have utilized cluster analytic procedures to elucidate profiles of verbal learning on the California Verbal Learning Test following traumatic brain injury (TBI). Although the results of these studies have contributed to our understanding of verbal learning following TBI, limitations in sample composition and methodology render the results difficult to evaluate. The current study provides an analysis of verbal learning clusters in the most comprehensive sample (n = 160) of TBI patients reported thus far. Results obtained from multiple hierarchical agglomerative clustering procedures suggested the presence of two distinct clusters, the first consisting of performance patterns falling within normal limits and the second consisting of moderate-to-severe impairment. Two iterative partitioning analyses further suggested a reliable solution with better-than-chance agreement (kappa coefficients >.85, p <.001). Thus, it is concluded that a two-cluster classification solution provides a parsimonious understanding of verbal learning profiles after TBI.
This paper describes the development of a pictorial version of the California Verbal Learning Test. The new instrument, named the Connecticut Pictorial Learning Test (COPLT), was tested in two experiments. The first experiment involved selection and testing of new verbal stimuli to be adapted for pictorial use. Results suggest that these new items are approximately equivalent in difficulty to the original CVLT stimuli. These stimuli can serve as CVLT alternate Form III for use in clinical verbal memory research. Recall means and standard deviations are provided for the new stimulus set with a young adult sample. The second experiment explores the psychometric properties of the new COPLT after stimuli were translated into pictorial form. The psychometric evidence suggests that the pictorial test has good internal consistency and concurrent validity with widely-used clinical memory tests. Furthermore, verbally-mediated information processing serves successful pictorial learning and subsequent recall performance in normal healthy control subjects when verbally-encodable pictorial stimuli are used. The use of semantic organization appears to be even more important for optimal performance using pictorial stimuli than with verbal stimuli. Scoring rules for the COPLT are included in the Appendix.
Previous research indicates that verbal learning and memory deficits are among the most severe cognitive deficits observed in schizophrenia. However, the concomitant patterns of regional brain function associated with these deficits in schizophrenia are not well understood. The present study examined verbal-memory performance and simultaneous relative glucose metabolic rates (rGMR) with FDG PET in 20 unmedicated schizophrenia patients who met stringent memory-performance criteria and 32 age- and sex-matched normal volunteers. On a modified version of the California Verbal Learning Test, patients recalled fewer correct words using a semantic-clustering strategy and exhibited more intrusions compared with normal subjects. However, patients had higher serial-ordering strategy scores, indicating their use of a less efficient organizational strategy. Among patients, greater use of the serial-ordering strategy was associated with decreased rGMR in frontal cortex and increased rGMR in temporal cortex. Patients had lower rGMR primarily in frontal and temporal cortex, but not parietal and occipital lobe regions. Patients also exhibited hypofrontality (lower ratio of frontal to occipital rGMR) compared with normal subjects. Among the patients, more severe hypofrontality was associated with increased perseveration errors.