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Results for “Token Economy”

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At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed1976

The cellblock token economy: token reinforcement procedures in a maximum security correctional institution for adult male felons.

Two experiments were conducted (1) to explore the application of token reinforcement procedures in a maximum security correctional institution for adult male felons and (2) to determine to what extent the reinforcement procedures disrupted the day-to-day lives of inmate participants. In Experiment 1, an expanded reversal design revealed that the combination of praise and token reinforcement was more effective than the combinations of praise and noncontingent token award or direct commands on four common institutional activities. The latter two combinations were not found to be any more effective than praise alone. Experiment 2, which also employed a reversal design, indicated that the high levels of performance observed during the token reinforcement phases of Experiment 1 could be attained without subjecting participants to undue hardship in the form of increased deprivation of either social intercourse or the opportunity to engage in recreational and entertainment activities. Client safeguards are discussed in detail.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed1978

Results of a token economy.

A token economy for chronic psychiatric patients (average hospital stay of ten years) is reported. One hundred seventy-four patients were treated. Follow-up data were obtained on 173 patients who had been discharged from the hospital for an average of three years at the time of follow-up. One hundred twenty-five patients completed the program, which featured a graduated method for shaping behavior (functional levels). Ninety-one of the 125 patients who completed the program and were living in the community were employed. The program was most effective with patients who had been in the hospital for less than ten years and had an IQ above 80.

Adult↗
PubMed1979

Overjustification effects in token economies.

This study tested the relevance to clinical token economies of the overjustification hypothesis that tangible reward interferes with intrinsic interest in target behaviors and causes such behaviors to be less probable following a period of reinforcement than preceding such a period. The study was carried out in an ongoing token economy for chronic psychiatric patients. Alternated over an 8-week period were weeks of token and no-token reward for one of the program's target behaviors, toothbrushing. Two different amounts of token reward were employed in order to examine whether reward magnitude might influence the presence or extent of overjustification effects. Little evidence was found for the presence of overjustification effects in token economies. However, maintenance of toothbrushing was greater in no-token weeks following weeks of low amounts of token reward than in no-token weeks following weeks of higher amounts of reward. The importance of such complex functional relationships is discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1976

Some antitherapeutic effects of the token economy: a case in point.

This paper deals with some of the complaints of patients and difficulties in treatment which arose on a psychiatric ward which was administered as a token economy. Most evaluations of token economies have been made by advocates of the technique and have selected specific behaviors as "targets" for reinforcement. I do not wish to engage in polemics regarding the relative worth of behavioral and psychodynamic theories of treatment, but this paper reflects my own misgivings about certain aspects of the token economy and is concerned more with the quality of the ward atmosphere it creates than with specific behavior changes. I will describe the difficulties encountered on a single ward because I suspect that such difficulties, while perhaps ubiquitous to psychiatric wards and mental hospitals, are amplified within the token economy to the detriment of patient care. My purposes in this paper, then, are twofold: to present and briefly analyze several recurrent problems on a token economy within a wider context of events than is typical for such discussions; and to provoke advocates of the token economy system to consider the possibility that their favorite treatment modality may actually limit the potential for therapy. In fulfilling these purposes, I shall also be making reference to some psychiatric literature, now fifteen to twenty years old, which has struggled with similar problems with partial success, and of which psychologists and younger psychiatrists are too often unaware.

Humans↗
PubMed1975

A review of token economy treatment programs for psychiatric inpatients.

The author has reviewed outcome studies of token economy programs for psychiatric inpatients. Only studies that employed some control procedures in their evaluation were included. Token economies were most effective in modifying inhospital work, personal care, and some psychotic behaviors. Studies that assessed token programs to prepare patients for community living and reduce recidivism generally affirmed the effectiveness of token procedures, but the studies were poorly designed, and they lacked systematic follow-up data. Almost all studies failed to examine possible interactions between chemotherapy and the token economies. The author suggests the need for studies using token economies with psychiatric patients other than chronic schizophrenics, who have been studied almost exclusively to date.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1979

The evolution of a token economy programme for female chronic schizophrenic patients.

Token economy programmes are becoming an increasingly familiar sight in British psychiatric hospitals, yet many remain inflexible and prone to breakdown after a period in operation. This paper describes the evolution of a token economy for female chronic schizophrenic patients, where the nursing staff with minimal 'psychological' support and in dealing with a programme free of research constraints, aimed to increase the therapeutic potential of the system. The major developments arose from the need: (i) to extinguish the emergence of undesirable behaviour; (2) to develop a more individualized approach to treating patients' problems; (3) to keep consistent adequate records; (4) to re-establish contact with the community and (5) to cater for patients' varied responses to treatment.

Aftercare↗
PubMed1976

Token economies in institutional settings. Historical, political, deprivation, ethical, and generalization issues.

The use of the token economy in institutional settings is examined in light of historical, political, deprivation, ethical, and generalization issues. The major points may be summarized as follows. a) The token economy may be viewed as a palliative measure to prevent the incredibly regressive effects of institutionalization. b) To achieve control in token programs in many "total institutions," an artificial state of deprivation must be achieved. c) Generalization of behaviors into the natural environment following the patient's stay in a token economy program should not be taken for granted. d) What the patient learns in a token economic system may not be what the token economy's program director probably intends.

Behavior Therapy↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[A token economy experiment in young schizophrenic patients].

The paradigm of operant behaviour (Skinner) systematically applied to a group constitutes the theoretical basis of token-economy programs. Such a system consists in relating a certain behaviour to a consequence known to the patient. The efficiency of a token-economy has already been demonstrated for various populations: delinquants, schooolboys, chronic psychiatric patients. This pilot-study reports on our experience in applying in token-economy program in a group of young schizophrenics, most of them being hebefrenics: concepts and difficulties in realisation, hierarchical structure of the system, and results obtained.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1976

Effects of price manipulations on consumer behavior in sheltered workshop token economy.

The consumer behavior of institutionalized retarded clients in a sheltered workshop token economy were evaluated by changing prices in the workshop store. In the first experiment we found that clients displayed elasticity of demand in that raising the prices of frequently purchased goods reduced the frequency and amount spent on more expendable items. Results from the second experiment showed that this change in spending pattern was not due to the relative modal unit price of item classes. The regulation of demand for consumer goods is a potentially useful way to maintain economic balance and effectiveness of a token economy.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1977

Symptom changes in chronic schizophrenic patients on a token economy: a controlled experiment.

An 18-month controlled experiment was conducted into the effects of a token economy programme on the ward behaviour and symptoms of chronic schizophrenic patients. An experimental group received tokens dependent upon appropriate behaviour, while a matched control group on the same ward received every aspect of the ward programme similarly except that tokens were not dependent upon their behaviour. Regular assessment showed that both groups improved substantially in social withdrawal. Over twelve months of treatment the experimental group improved no more than the control group. There were no symptomatic changes. The conclusions were that token economy is a treatment affecting withdrawl and social behaviour rather than symptomatology, and that factors other than reinforcement by tokens were responsible for the main changes.

Chronic Disease↗
PubMed1979

Multiple-baseline analysis of a token economy for psychiatric inpatients.

Twelve behaviors selected for reinforcement among 16 chronic psychiatric inpatients were divided into four classes: (a) personal hygiene, (b) personal management, (c) ward work, and (d) social skills. A token economy program was introduced for each class in a sequential, cumulative, multiple-baseline format. Corrections were included for methodological deficiencies frequently enountered in past studies. Treatment variables were systematically monitored, and target behavior rates, levels of global individual functioning, general ward behavior, and off-ward behavior were assessed during baseline, implementation, and probe periods. Results indicated abrupt and substantial increases in performance of most target behaviors, significant improvements in global individual functioning (p less than .025), positive changes in general ward behavior, and increases in social interaction during off-ward activities. The findings provide strong evidence for the efficacy of a token economy and indicate that the multiple-baseline design can be a useful method for evaluating token economy programs.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed1978

Token economy, pimozide and chronic schizophrenia.

Response to a token economy was assessed in male chronic schizophrenic in-patients who were given, in a double-blind cross-over trial, pimozide (up to 20 mg daily) or chlorpromazine )up to 1,000 mg daily), each for three months. After six months there was little change in the patients' mental state, but general ward behaviour and token-rewarded "target" behaviours improved significantly. There were no statistically significant between-drug differences, but the trend was that general ward behaviour, but not token-rewarded behaviour, improved more on pimozide. The patients who showed initiative and cooperated best with staff were those whose token-rewarded behaviour was most satisfactory.

Behavior Therapy↗
PubMed1979

Internal control and success orientation in a token economy for emotionally disturbed adolescents.

Forty-one emotionally disturbed adolescents were tested at each of three token economy levels on Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control Scale and Guevar's Success-Failure Inventory. Delay of reinforcement (immediate, daily, weekly) was the primary differentiation between levels. One-way analyses of variance indicated a change across levels in the direction of more perceived internal control of behavior (p less than .025) and a greater success orientation (p less than .005). Change scores were not correlated with length of time in the program. Results suggest that the token economy as an external source of control is not necessarily incompatible with increasing patient expectancies of present and future control of the environment.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1977

The effect of holidays on a token economy regime.

This preliminary study investigates the effect on patients' performance of a set time off, in the form of a short holiday, from a strict reinforcement (token economy) regime. Assessment was by the patients' mean token earnings before and after the holiday and their self-care and work performance throughout. The results suggest that a holiday from a token economy has beneficial effects for patients.

Behavior Therapy↗
PubMed1976

Follow-up of a token economy applied to civilly committed narcotic addicts.

Thirty-one civil-commitment, male, heroin addicts participated in an intramural token economy designed to reinforce the rehabilitative process by programming the incentive of length of residential stay. The project evaluated participation in rehabilitative activities during intramural stay, personality change as measured by the MMPI, and follow-up of the participants' community aftercare retention. The token economy had a substantial impact on the participants' institutional adjustment but had little influence on the evaluative dimensions of personality change and rate of aftercare retention.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1977

The effect of the absence of close supervision on the use of response cost in a prison token economy.

A naturally occurring experiment, in which direct supervision of a token economy in a penal system was removed and re-instated, is reported. A retrospective analysis revealed that in the absence of close supervision the use of response cost rose dramatically, both in terms of categories of behaviors for which response costs were levied and in the frequency of their use. The return of direct supervision led to a decreased use and and an end to the growth of categories of behaviors punished.

Administrative Personnel↗
PubMed1979

A token economy in the framework of a hospital therapeutic community -- practice and psychosocial implications.

A token economy (TE) aimed at enhancing self care, work habits, and social participation was initiated in conjunction with the restructuring of a chronic ward into a therapeutic community. Recorded data over a year revealed a differential impact of the TE on various patients. An attempt is made to characterize differential response modes to the TE and to delineate their correlates. Both participants in the program and therapeutic agents were interviewed as to their attitudes towards the TE. Beneficial effects were demonstrated mainly in patients with a relatively late onset of psychiatric illness, but a favorable attitude towards the TE was displayed by both patients and staff members. Implications for psychosocial readaptation are discussed taking into account humanistic and psychodynamic points of view. The reconsideration of possible merging of different therapeutic techniques seems to be desirable.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed1976

The token economy in the National Health Service: possibilities and limitations.

The effects after 1 year of the introduction of a token economy system into a long-term male psychiatric ward of 45 mainly schizophrenic patients are described. The main objectives were (1) to define the limits of such programmes in "average" National Health Service conditions, where additional resources in staff, finance, and facilities are very limited and (2) to introduce the principles and techniques of behaviour modification to nursing staff. The programme succeeded in reducing social withdrawal and apathy and in increasing self-care skills and involvement in constructive activity. There was no change in the level of socially embarrassing behaviour. The major limitation affecting the maintenance of the programme was found to be the rapid turnover and unpredictable changes in nursing staff. It was concluded that such programmes are feasible with very little in the way of increased resources, and that such efforts will continue to be necessary in view of the existing large numbers of long-tern patients and the slow but significant accumulation of new patients.

Adult↗