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PubMed1988

Tobacco-specific nitrosamines, an important group of carcinogens in tobacco and tobacco smoke.

Tobacco-specific nitrosamines are a group of carcinogens that are present in tobacco and tobacco smoke. They are formed from nicotine and related tobacco alkaloids. Two of the nicotine-derived nitrosamines, NNK and NNN, are strong carcinogens in laboratory animals. They can induce tumors both locally and systemically. The induction of oral cavity tumors by a mixture of NNK and NNN, and the organospecificity of NNK for the lung are particularly noteworthy. The amounts of NNK and NNN in tobacco and tobacco smoke are high enough that their total estimated doses to long-term snuff-dippers or smokers are similar in magnitude to the total doses required to produce cancer in laboratory animals. These exposures thus represent an unacceptable risk to tobacco consumers, and possibly to non-smokers exposed for years to environmental tobacco smoke. The permission of such high levels of carcinogens in consumer products used by millions of people represents a major legislative failure. Indeed, the levels of tobacco-specific nitrosamines in tobacco are thousands of times higher than the amounts of other nitrosamines in consumer products that are regulated by government authorities. Although the role of tobacco-specific nitrosamines as causative factors in tobacco-related human cancers cannot be assessed with certainty because of the complexity of tobacco and tobacco smoke, several lines of evidence strongly indicate that they have a major role, especially in the causation of oral cancer in snuff-dippers. Epidemiologic studies have demonstrated that snuff-dipping causes oral cancer. NNK and NNN are quantitatively the most prevalent known carcinogens in snuff, and they induce oral tumors when applied to the rat oral cavity. A role for NNK in the induction of lung cancer by tobacco smoke is likely because of its organospecificity for the lung. Tobacco-specific nitrosamines may also be involved in the etiology of tobacco-related cancers of the esophagus, nasal cavity, and pancreas. Because they are derived from nicotine, and therefore should be associated only with tobacco, tobacco smoke and other nicotine-containing products, tobacco-specific nitrosamines as well as their metabolites and macromolecular adducts should be ideal markers for assessing human exposure to, and metabolic activation of, tobacco smoke carcinogens. Ongoing research has demonstrated the formation of globin and DNA adducts of NNK and NNN in experimental animals. Sensitive methods for the detection and quantitation of these adducts in humans would provide an approach to assessing individual risk for tobacco-related cancers.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Humans↗

PubMed2001

Whose standard is it, anyway? How the tobacco industry determines the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards for tobacco and tobacco products.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the extent of the tobacco industry involvement in establishing international standards for tobacco and tobacco products and the industry influence on the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). METHODS: Analysis of tobacco industry documents made public as part of the settlement of the Minnesota Tobacco Trial and the Master Settlement Agreement. Search words included "ISO", "CORESTA", "Barclay", "compensation and machine smoking", "tar and nicotine deliveries", and the name of key players, in different combinations. RESULTS: It is clear that the tobacco industry, through the Cooperation Centre for Scientific Research Relative to Tobacco (CORESTA), play a major role in determining the scientific evidence and suggesting the standards that are eventually adopted as international standards for tobacco and tobacco products in several areas, including the measurement of cigarette tar and nicotine yield. CONCLUSIONS: ISO's tobacco and tobacco products standards are not adequate to guide tobacco products regulatory policies, and no health claims can be made based on ISO's tobacco products standards. There is an urgent need for tobacco control advocates and groups worldwide to be more involved with the work of the ISO, both directly and through their national standardisation organisations.

Consumer Product Safety↗

PubMed1989

Preformed tobacco-specific nitrosamines in tobacco--role of nitrate and influence of tobacco type.

Fifty-five types of commercial cigarettes on the open market in the FRG and several samples of pure tobacco types were analyzed for preformed tobacco-specific nitrosamines (TSNA) and nitrate in the tobacco. For the cigarette tobaccos the observed range for N'-nitrosonornicotine (NNN) was 50-5316 ng/cigarette and for 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) from not detected (less than 50 ng/cigarette) to 1120 ng/cigarette. Nitrate levels ranged from 0.6 to 14.4 mg/cigarette. The highest TSNA values were obtained for cigarettes made of dark tobaccos and the lowest for Oriental type cigarettes. The results demonstrated that there is a correlation between TSNA and nitrate levels. The tobacco type is another important influencing factor, especially for NNK. In Virginia tobaccos unexpectedly high NNK values were observed. For the samples of the pure tobacco types, NNN levels ranged from 20 to 8850 p.p.b. and NNK levels from not detected (less than 50 p.p.b.) to 1400 p.p.b. The observed range for nitrate was from traces (less than 0.005%) to 4.1%. Pure Oriental tobaccos which are low in nitrate showed the lowest TSNA concentrations. In the high nitrate Burley tobaccos the highest TSNA concentrations could be determined. Virginia tobaccos which show a low nitrate content are low in NNN but rather high NNK concentrations were found. The results from these pure tobacco types demonstrate that the nitrate content of the tobacco has a great influence on the TSNA level. However, Virginia tobaccos show higher NNK concentrations than expected according to their low nitrate content.

Chromatography, Gas↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Relationship of personal tobacco-raising, parental smoking, and other factors to tobacco use among adolescents living in a tobacco-producing region.

This study examined factors related to tobacco use among youth from tobacco-raising (TRH) and nonraising households (NRH). The subjects were 3,851 seventh-grade students from 19 middle schools located in a tobacco-raising region. Valid self-reports of tobacco use were encouraged by the use of a test for carbon monoxide in expired air. Cigarette use was higher when (a) at least one parent smoked, and/or (b) the student personally raised tobacco. A boy who personally raised tobacco and had at least one parent who smoked was 10.2 times more likely to have smoked in the last 7 days than a boy from a nonraising household in which neither parent smoked. For girls, the odds ratio was 5.6:1. Tobacco use among students in this high-risk group was higher than rates reported in national or regional studies. Other results were: (1) use began very early--16% of the students had tried cigarettes and 13% of the boys had tried smokeless tobacco (SLT) in Grade 3 or earlier; and (2) users reported more lenient rules at home regarding tobacco use than did nonusers. Years from now, these high-risk students are likely to be major contributors to increased morbidity and mortality due to tobacco use. Implications for tobacco prevention in tobacco-raising areas are discussed.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2004

Learning from Philip Morris: Japan Tobacco's strategies regarding evidence of tobacco health harms as revealed in internal documents from the American tobacco industry.

Japan is in the midst of a rapid increase in tobacco-related disease mortality, following the rapid growth of smoking after WWII. Stomach cancer was the country's leading cause of cancer death for most of the 20th century, until lung cancer took over this position in 1993. Cigarettes are the major cause of lung cancer in Japan, but the country's leading manufacturer, Japan Tobacco, two thirds of which is owned by the Japanese government, continues to question whether tobacco is a major cause of disease and death. Japanese courts do not have the power to subpoena a company's internal records, which has made it difficult to document Japan Tobacco's strategies concerning tobacco and health. Our interpretation of online archives of internal documents from American tobacco companies, however, is that Japan Tobacco has long known about the potential health risks involved in smoking and has sought to obstruct effective tobacco control. Beginning in the mid-1980s, these efforts were often co-ordinated with American tobacco manufacturers. The documentary evidence shows that cigarette manufacturer Philip Morris in particular assisted with and sometimes also supervised Japan Tobacco's actions and statements on smoking and health. In one instance, data gathered for an article published by the Japan Public Monopoly Corporation (Japan Tobacco's predecessor) were deliberately altered to lower the reported value of a hazard indicator (nicotine concentration in the air). International collaboration has made it easier for companies such as Japan Tobacco to develop effective anti-antismoking strategies. Evidence of such global industry collaborations might grow as lawsuits begin to be filed in other nations.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1991

Analytical studies on tobacco-specific N-nitrosamines in tobacco and tobacco smoke.

Chemical-analytical studies have led to the identification of approximately 3000 compounds in tobacco and 4000 in tobacco smoke. These include carcinogens in processed tobacco as well as tumor initiators, tumor promoters, cocarcinogens, and organ-specific carcinogens in tobacco smoke. The latter group includes N-nitrosamines, in particular those that derive from nicotine and other tobacco alkaloids, the TSNA. In vitro nitrosation of nicotine yields NNN, NNA, and NNK. Nitrosation of other tobacco alkaloids leads to the formation of NAT, and NAB. Our analytical studies using GC-TEA have led to the identification of seven TSNA in tobacco and tobacco smoke. In addition to NNN, NAT, NAB, and NNK, we also identified NNAL, iso-NNAL, and, most recently, iso-NNAC. Their levels range from 0.01 to 92 ppm in tobacco and from 6 to 530 ng/cigarette in tobacco smoke. The high levels observed in snuff are primarily due to fermentation and aging. Technological methods exist today to reduce the levels of TSNA in both tobacco and cigarette smoke.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Minor tobacco alkaloids as biomarkers for tobacco use: comparison of users of cigarettes, smokeless tobacco, cigars, and pipes.

OBJECTIVES: This study (1) determined levels of various tobacco alkaloids in commercial tobacco products. (2) determined urinary concentrations, urinary excretion, and half-lives of the alkaloids in humans; and (3) examined the possibility that urine concentrations of nicotine-related alkaloids can be used as biomarkers of tobacco use. METHODS: Nicotine intake from various tobacco products was determined through pharmacokinetic techniques. Correlations of nicotine intake with urinary excretion and concentrations of anabasine, anatabine, nornicotine, nicotine, and cotinine were examined. By using urinary excretion data, elimination half-lives of the alkaloids were calculated. RESULTS: Alkaloid levels in commercial tobacco products, in milligrams per gram, were as follows: nicotine, 6.5 to 17.5; nornicotine, 0.14 to 0.66; anabasine, 0.008 to 0.030; and anatabine, 0.065 to 0.27. Measurable concentrations of all alkaloids were excreted in the urine of most subjects smoking cigarettes, cigars, and pipes and using smokeless tobacco. Correlations between nicotine intake and alkaloid concentrations were good to excellent. CONCLUSIONS: Anabasine and anatabine, which are present in tobacco but not in nicotine medications, can be used to assess tobacco use in persons undergoing nicotine replacement therapy.

Adult↗

PubMed1988

Interaction of tobacco etch or tobacco vein mottling virus and ozone on biomass changes in burley tobacco.

Burley tobacco is susceptible to several different types of virus diseases that suppress plant growth and development. Two viruses, tobacco etch virus (TEV) and tobacco vein mottling virus (TVMV), are particularly damaging to burley. Burley tobacco cultivars resistant to these two viruses are currently being developed. Some of these cultivars also show differential sensitivity to ozone (O3). Recent field observations have suggested that burley tobacco infected with TEV and TVMV was more sensitive to O3 than non-virus-infected tobacco. Experiments were designed to identify interactions between O3 and each of the two virus diseases. Three cultivars, Burley 21, Burley 49, and Greeneville 131, which were differentially sensitive to O3 and both virus diseases, were grown in a charcoal-filtered greenhouse environment. Tobacco plants of each cultivar were inoculated with TEV or TVMV, and virus infected and virus-free plants were exposed to 0.0, 0.05, 0.2, and 0.4 ppm O3 (1 ppm of O3 is equivalent to 1960 microg m(-3)), 3h day(-1), 5 days week(-1) for 3 weeks in continuous-stirred tank reactor exposure chambers in the greenhouse. Exposures were begun after systemic virus symptoms were expressed in inoculated plants. The suppression of lead and stem dry weight by increasing O3 concentrations was less in TEV-infected burley cultivars than in noninfected burley cultivars. Tobacco vein mottling virus infection enhanced biomass suppression by O3 on Burley 21 and on Greeneville 131, but not on Burley 49. Thus, the interactions with O3 were dependent on specific virus-cultivar combinations.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1980

Chemical studies on tobacco smoke LXVIII. Analysis of volatile and tobacco-specific nitrosamines in tobacco products.

The yields of volatile N-nitrosamines in cigarette smoke are primarily dependent upon the nitrate content of the tobacco and, to some extent, on the protein content. Cellulose acetate tips, such as those found on most commercial filter cigarettes, selectively remove at least 70% of the volatile N-nitrosamines, independently of the pH of the weakly acidic or weakly alkaline smoke. So far, three tobacco-specific N-nitrosamines have been detected in tobacco and tobacco smoke. During tobacco processing and smoking, N'-nitrosonornicotine is formed by nitrosation of nicotine and, to a minor degree, by nitrosation of nornicotine, whereas 4-(N-methyl-N-nitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone originates from oxidative nitrosation of nicotine. N'-Nitrosoanatabine is formed by nitrosation of the second most abundant tobacco alkaloid, anatabine. The tobacco-specific N-nitrosamines in the smoke arise partly from the tobacco by transfer and partly by nitrosation of the alkaloids during smoking (pyrosynthesis). Preliminary results indicate that cellulose acetate filter tips may selectively remove considerable amounts of the nonvolatile nitrosamines from the smoke.

Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid↗

PubMed1978

[Organochlorine insecticide residues in tobacco and tobacco products. 2. Residue levels in raw tobaccos used in the DDR].

The levels of insecticide residues in GDR and imported leaf tobaccos are reported. With our analysis method 16 chlorinated hydrocarbons can be analyzed. No DDT was found in tobaccos from the People's Republic of Corea. The mean DDT level of tobaccos from Hungary was lower than 0,1 ppm, the possibly value of the future tolerance. With few exceptions samples of other countries contained less than 1 ppm of the total DDT-group. Only a cigar tobacco from Paraguay showed a very high residue level of 7,20 ppm. Except this sample the residue values are to be attributed to the DDT persistence in soil and the relatively high intake by tobacco, since with the exception of few countries no DDT is anymore used with tobacco. The lindane concentration was very low in all tabaccos. In some tobaccos traces or only very small quantities of other organochlorine residues were detected.

Commerce↗

PubMed1993

Susceptibility of transgenic tobacco plants expressing tobacco rattle virus coat protein to nematode-transmitted and mechanically inoculated tobacco rattle virus.

Transgenic Samsun NN tobacco plants expressing the coat protein of tobacco rattle virus were exposed to mechanical leaf inoculation with tobacco rattle virus and to viruliferous trichodorid vector nematodes. Whereas plants were resistant to mechanical inoculation the vector nematodes successfully transmitted tobacco rattle virus to the roots as well as to the leaves of these plants. It is suggested that transgenic resistance is overcome either because vector nematodes inject relatively large numbers of virus particles into a cell or because they inject destabilized particles. The results indicate that coat protein-mediated resistance is unlikely to be of value for controlling tobacco rattle virus in field crops.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Impact of tobacco tax reforms on tobacco prices and tobacco use in Australia.

OBJECTIVE: To document the impact of changes to tobacco taxes on the range and price of tobacco sold during the period when the National Tobacco Campaign (NTC) was run. DATA SOURCES: Information about brand availability, pack size, and price was extracted from Australian Retail Tobacconist. A retail observational survey was undertaken to monitor actual retail prices. Data on cigarette prices, brands, packet configurations, and outlets from which they were purchased were obtained from the benchmark and three follow up population telephone surveys conducted to evaluate the NTC. METHOD: Data from the three sources were compared to see the extent to which the impact of tax changes had been offset by greater retail discounting and a more concerted effort by consumers to purchase cheaper products. RESULTS: Smokers were unable to cushion themselves from the sharp price increases that occurred during the third phase of the NTC. Both average recommended retail prices of manufactured cigarettes and average actual cigarette prices paid by smokers increased by 25% in real prices. CONCLUSION: The fall in smoking prevalence over the first two phases of the NTC was substantially greater than would be expected due to tax changes alone. The fall in smoking consumption over the first two phases was slightly less than would be expected and in the third considerably higher than would be expected.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1984

5'-dephosphorylated 2',5'-adenylate trimer and its analogs. Inhibition of tobacco mosaic virus replication in tobacco mosaic virus-infected leaf discs, protoplasts, and intact tobacco plants.

The effect of the 5'-dephosphorylated 2',5'-adenylate trimer and its 2',5'-trimer core analogs on the inhibition of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) replication was determined in tobacco leaf discs, protoplasts, and whole tobacco plants, using infectivity tests and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. A structure-activity-metabolic stability-toxicity analysis of the 2',5'-adenylate trimer core molecule in TMV-infected Nicotiana glutinosa was determined. Modification at either the 6-amino position of the adenylate residues (i.e. inosinate trimer core) or at the 2' terminus (i.e. A-A-ara-A or A-A-Tu) inhibited replication of TMV. Modification of the 3'-hydroxyl group of the adenylate residues to 3-deoxyribose (i.e. the 2',5'-cordycepin trimer core) inhibited TMV replication better than the 2',5'-adenylate trimer core molecule. With enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, there was complete inhibition of TMV replication by 200 nM 2',5'-adenylate trimer core for 60 h and by 200 nM 2',5'-cordycepin trimer core for 96 h. The amount of 2',5'-oligonucleotides associated with the leaves was determined using 2',5'-[3H]cordycepin trimer core; 1 X 10(-12) mol/cm2 of plant leaves inhibited TMV replication by 99%. No 2',5'-phosphodiesterase activity was detected in TMV-infected and noninfected leaf extracts. Therefore, the 2',5'-trimer cores were potent inhibitors of TMV replication at nanomolar concentrations, i.e. at 1000-fold lower concentration than that required in mammalian systems.

Adenosine↗

PubMed1995

Electron microscopic localization of ATPase activity in tobacco cells infected by tobacco etch potyvirus and tobacco mosaic virus.

Thin sections of leaves of plants infected by tobacco etch potyvirus (TEV) or tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) were examined for the presence of ATPase activity by electron microscopy. ATPase activity was found as expected in mitochondria, chloroplasts and plasmalemma of both uninfected as well as cells infected by either TEV or TMV. In the TEV-infected cells, ATPase activity was localized to virus-induced vesicles, endoplasmic reticulum and in some cells, to ribosomes attached to the ER. In TMV-infected cells, ATPase activity was found in vesicles as well as in tubular membranes closely associated with the X-bodies.

Adenosine Triphosphatases↗

PubMed1988

Transgenic tobacco plants accumulating tobacco rattle virus coat protein resist infection with tobacco rattle virus and pea early browning virus.

Transgenic tobacco plants expressing the coat protein (CP) gene of tobacco rattle virus (TRV) strain TCM were found to be resistant to infection with the homologous virus but not to infection with the PLB strain of TRV. The amino acid sequence identity between the CP of TRV strains TCM and PLB is 39% and the two CP genes do not cross-hybridize. On the other hand, there is extensive cross-hybridization between the CP genes of TRV-TCM and a Dutch isolate of pea early browning virus (PEBV). The transgenic plants accumulating TRV-TCM CP showed a considerable resistance to infection with PEBV.

Blotting, Northern↗

PubMed2002

State expenditures for tobacco-control programs and the tobacco settlement.

BACKGROUND: Despite controversy surrounding the use of funds arising from settlement agreements with the tobacco industry, little is known about the role of these funds in expenditures for state tobacco-control programs. METHODS: We evaluated state expenditures for tobacco-control programs in fiscal year 2001 in the context of the amount of tobacco-settlement funds received and allocated to tobacco-control programs and in the context of other state-level economic and health data. RESULTS: In 2001 the average state received $28.35 per capita from the tobacco settlement but allocated approximately 6 percent of these funds to tobacco-control programs. The average state dedicated $3.49 per capita (range, $0.10 to $15.47) to tobacco-control programs. The proportion of settlement funds allocated to tobacco-control programs varied from 0 to 100 percent and was strongly related to levels of tobacco-control funding (P<0.001). States with higher smoking rates tended to invest less per capita in tobacco-control programs (P=0.007), as did tobacco-producing states (the mean per capita expenditure was $1.20, as compared with $3.81 in non-tobacco-producing states; P<0.008). In a multivariate analysis, the proportion of the settlement revenue allocated to tobacco-control programs was the primary determinant of the level of total funding; the state tobacco-related health burden was unrelated to program funding. CONCLUSIONS: State health needs appear to have little effect on the funding of state tobacco-control programs. Because only a very small proportion of the tobacco settlement is being used for tobacco-control programs, the settlement represents an unrealized opportunity to reduce morbidity and mortality from smoking.

Health Expenditures↗

PubMed2003

Tobacco industry strategy to undermine tobacco control in Finland.

OBJECTIVE: To identify and explain tobacco industry strategy in undermining tobacco control measures in Finland and results of these interferences in tobacco policy development during the 1980s and early 1990s. METHODS: Tobacco industry documents, which have been publicly available on the internet as a result of litigation in the USA, were analysed. Documents were sought by Finland and by names of organisations and tobacco control activists. Documents were accessed and assessed between September 2000 and November 2002. Tactics of the tobacco industry activities were categorised as presented by Saloojee and Dagli. RESULTS: The international tobacco companies utilised similar strategies in Finland as in other industrial markets to fight tobacco control and legislation, the health advocacy movement, and litigation. These activities slowed down the development and implementation of the Tobacco Act in Finland. However, despite the extensive pressure, the industry was not able to prevent the most progressive tobacco legislation in Europe from being passed and coming into force in Finland in 1977 and in 1995. CONCLUSION: Denying the health hazards caused by tobacco-despite indisputable scientific evidence-decreased the credibility of the tobacco industry. Strategy of denial was falsely chosen, as health advocacy groups were active both in society and the parliamentary system. The strong influence of the tobacco industry may have in fact increased the visibility of tobacco control in Finland as the litigation process was also drawing attention to negative health effects of tobacco. Therefore the tobacco industry did not manage to convince public opinion. However, the tobacco industry did obtain experience in Finland in how to object to tobacco control measures.

Finland↗

PubMed2005

Tobacco use, access, and exposure to tobacco in media among middle and high school students--United States, 2004.

Two of the national health objectives for 2010 are to reduce the prevalence of any tobacco use during the preceding month to < or =21% and the prevalence of current cigarette use to < or =16% among high school students (objectives 27-2a and 27-2b). The National Youth Tobacco Survey (NYTS), conducted by CDC in 2004, provided estimates of current use of tobacco products and selected indicators related to tobacco use, including youth exposure to tobacco-related media and access to cigarettes. This report summarizes data from the 2004 NYTS and describes changes in tobacco use and indicators related to tobacco use since 2002. During 2002-2004, middle school students reported decreases in pipe use, seeing actors using tobacco on television or in movies, and seeing advertisements for tobacco products on the Internet. Among high school students, no changes were observed in the use of tobacco or in access to tobacco products; however, seeing actors using tobacco on television or in movies declined slightly, and seeing advertisements for tobacco products on the Internet increased. The lack of substantial decreases in the use of almost all tobacco products among middle and high school students underscores the need to fully implement evidence-based strategies (e.g., increasing the retail price of tobacco products, implementing smoking-prevention media campaigns, and decreasing minors' access as part of comprehensive tobacco-control programs) that are effective in preventing youth tobacco use.

Adolescent↗