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PubMedDate not supplied

Reference values for arm muscle area, arm fat area, subscapular skinfold thickness, and sum of skinfold thicknesses for American adults.

Reference values for the mid-upper arm muscle area, mid-upper arm fat area, subscapular skinfold thickness, and sum of triceps and subscapular skinfold thicknesses of American adults were developed from data collected by the National Center for Health Statistics during the first National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1971 to 1974. The reference values were compared to other reference values derived from a similarly conducted cross-sectional survey of the American population, the Health Examination Survey of 1960 to 1962. These comparisons revealed that arm muscle area and subscapular skinfold thickness of men and arm muscle area of women continuously increase with aging from 18 to 74 yr; arm fat area and sum of skinfold thicknesses of men increase with aging from 18 to 34 yr but stabilize or decrease with further aging; and arm fat area, subscapular skinfold thickness, and sum of skinfold thicknesses of women increase with aging from 18 to 64 yr but decrease thereafter. As these parameters frequently change more than 20% over the period of a single decade, it is important that age be considered in nutritional evaluations based on anthropometric measurements. Changes in these four parameters with successive generations are also frequently large. Consequently, it is imperative that the reference values used in nutritional assessment protocols be updated at regular intervals.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1986

Maternal diabetes and neonatal macrosomia. Dynamic skinfold thickness measurements.

Skinfold thickness measurements were obtained in 206 neonates of nondiabetic mothers and 98 neonates of diabetic mothers within 28 hours of birth. Birthweights ranged from 680 to 5530 gm and gestational ages ranged from 25 to 46 weeks. Skinfold thickness measured 60 seconds after application of a Harpenden caliper correlated linearly with birthweight both for infants of nondiabetics mothers (r = 0.86 at the midtricipital site and 0.81 at the subscapular site) and for infants of diabetic mothers (r = 0.58 and 0.63). The slopes of the regression line for infants of diabetic and nondiabetic mothers were identical, but the y-intercept was higher for infants of diabetic mothers. Thus, at any given birthweight, infants of diabetic mothers appeared to have more subcutaneous fat. Dynamic skinfold thickness measurements were obtained in 75 neonates of nondiabetic mothers and 29 neonates of diabetic mothers with a Harpenden caliper connected to a chart recorder. The mean magnitude and rate of decline of skinfold thickness measurement during the 60 seconds after application of the caliper were affected neither by the presence of maternal diabetes nor by the degree of intrauterine growth of the neonates. These data suggest that neonatal macrosomia and maternal diabetes do not affect the amount of subcutaneous interstitial water.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1997

'Skin roll' ('pinch and roll') test: skinfold thickness and tenderness.

Skinfold thickness and tenderness are variables that have been used in the diagnosis of headaches of cervical origin. In order to assess these variables in actual patients, the normal limits have to be properly known. Skinfold thickness and tenderness during the "skin roll" ("pinch and roll") test were, therefore, investigated simultaneously in a group of 95 healthy individuals. Three positions (trapezius, mandibular, and supraorbital areas) were used. The following values for skinfold thickness in healthy individuals during the skin roll test were obtained: trapezius position 5 to 26 mm (mean 11.2 mm, SD 3.9), mandibular 3 to 12 mm (mean 6.5 mm, SD 1.8), and supraorbital 3 to 9 mm (mean 4.6 mm, SD 0.8). Strong positive correlation was found between subject height and skinfold thickness in the mandibular position. Skinfold thickness in the mandibular (P = 0.003), as well as in the trapezius position (P = 0.023) correlated positively with age. In 13 individuals (13.7%), tenderness to a varying extent was found in the shoulders (trapezius position). No pain was recorded in the other positions. No correlation was found between skinfold thickness and tenderness (P = 0.66).

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Estimation of obesity in schoolchildren by measuring skinfold thickness.

To determine whether skinfold thickness is correlated with degree of overweight, serum levels of cholesterol, and blood pressure in children, 161 boys and 167 girls aged 9 and 10 y underwent physical examinations at three elementary schools in Japan. Triceps skinfold thickness was positively correlated with degree of overweight, atherosclerosis index, and systolic blood pressure, and was negatively correlated with levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. Among children who were highly overweight (> or = 30%), those with low triceps skinfold thickness (< 11.2 mm) have lower levels of HDL cholesterol, a higher atherosclerosis index, and higher systolic blood pressure than those with greater triceps skinfold thickness (> or = 11.2 mm). The ratio of degree of overweight to triceps skinfold thickness was significantly correlated with levels of HDL cholesterol in girls but not in boys. These results suggest that, in overweight schoolchildren, skinfold thickness may reflect the risk of future hypercholesterolemia and hypertension. Measurement of triceps skinfold thickness and determination of degree of overweight may be useful for the estimation of obesity in children.

Blood Pressure↗
PubMed2006

Normative data for triceps and subscapular skinfold thicknesses of Chinese infants.

UNLABELLED: Skinfold thickness is a validated parameter of subcutaneous fat accumulation. Data on triceps and subscapular skinfold thicknesses were collected from 10,043 (5318 males, 4725 females) singletons at 12 hospitals with gestation 31-42 wk. The LMS method using maximum penalized likelihood was used to perform model fitting of the anthropometric centiles for these parameters. Both triceps and subscapular skinfold thicknesses were greater in girls than in boys. Racial differences were found when comparing with other populations. The triceps subscapular skinfold thicknesses of Chinese infants were significantly lower than those of US white infants but larger than those of African-American infants, Israeli infants, Spanish infants and Indian infants. CONCLUSION: This study provides the first set of references for the triceps and subscapular skinfold thicknesses of Chinese infants by gestation and gender. These data are helpful in determining the nutritional status of infants at birth and in assessing the postnatal growth of Chinese infants.

China↗
PubMed1998

The need for revised standards for skinfold thickness in infancy.

Skinfold standards provide a useful indication of subcutaneous fat. To evaluate skinfold thickness of 252 Cambridge infants over the first 2 years of age, SD scores relative to the Tanner standards were calculated, taking account of skewness in the standards. Cambridge SD scores were low, varying according to age from -1.2 to -1.8 for triceps and -0.6 to -1.2 for subscapular skinfolds. The Tanner skinfold standards were last revised 30 years ago, at a time of high prevalence of infantile obesity, and the present and other studies indicate that infants are now thinner. There is a need for new skinfold standards to reflect this change. Since the Cambridge infants contributed to the recent British height and weight references, it is suggested that their skinfold measurements could also serve as reference points.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1994

Estimation in community surveys of total body fat of children using bioelectrical impedance or skinfold thickness measurements.

OBJECTIVE: To compare skinfold thickness measurements with bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) as a measure of body fat for use in a survey of children (the National Study of Health and Growth). DESIGN: Part cross-sectional, part repeated measurement study. SETTING: A junior school in Bath. SUBJECTS: 42 boys and 33 girls aged from 9 to 11 years. INTERVENTIONS: Measurements of BIA, height, weight, and triceps, biceps, subscapular and suprailiac skinfolds. RESULTS: All measurements were highly repeatable with intraclass correlation coefficients > 0.90. The level of agreement between estimates of percentage of body fat derived from prediction equations based on impedance or skinfold measurements respectively was poor: the mean difference (impedance estimate minus skinfold estimate) was 4.67% (95% range -3.47 to 12.82) for boys and 7.81% (95% range 1.27 to 14.34) for girls. The two estimates were found to correlate highly (r = 0.83 for boys and r = 0.81 for girls) because weight, used to convert estimates of fat-free mass derived from impedance to fat mass, was highly correlated with impedance and moderately highly correlated with skinfold thicknesses. The correlations of resistance (R) and (H)2/R with skinfold thicknesses were very low. There was a moderate correlation of R and H2/R with log(weight-for-height index), but lower than that of log(weight-for-height index) with each of the skinfolds. CONCLUSIONS: As currently available equations for converting impedance-based estimates of total body water to fat mass are not fully developed for use in children of varying ages, estimates of body fat calculated from skinfold thickness measurements remain preferable in epidemiological studies of children's health and growth.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1990

Evaluation methods for intrauterine growth using neonatal fat stores instead of birth weight as outcome measures: fetal and neonatal measurements correlated with neonatal skinfold thicknesses.

Neonatal anthropometry, including timed skinfold measurements, was performed on 55 products of selected pregnancies. These skinfold measurements were compared with published standards of measurements obtained by similar techniques. Values outside the 3rd percentile to 97th percentile range were overlaid on the birth weight/menstrual age relationship of these subjects. Seven of 10 subjects with the lowest midtriceps skinfolds weighed more than 2500 g at birth (2 more than 3500 g) and 2 of 4 with the largest midtriceps skinfold had birth weights less than 4000 g. This comparison emphasizes the imprecision of birth weight as a measure of quality of fetal growth. Since skinfold thickness measurement is cumbersome for clinical use, other neonatal measures that may be more readily available to the clinician were examined for correlation with skinfolds. Simple birth weight/crown-heel length ratio was found to have the closest relationship of the parameters examined. Although estimated fetal weight was found to be the ultrasonography-derived parameter best correlated with skinfold thickness, ultrasonography discriminated poorly between babies with normal and low skinfolds. Low skinfold thickness predicted thermal vulnerability in the nursery better than did birth weight.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1987

Variations in skinfold thickness during de-acclimatisation and re-acclimatisation to high altitude. Relation to body fat content.

Skinfold thickness, body weight, body water, anthropometric measurements and segment volumes were determined in 28 young and healthy Indian soldiers on return to Delhi (200 m) after staying for more than 24 months at high altitude (3500 m). The measurements were made on the 2nd day and after 3 weeks. Ten subjects were then randomly selected from this group and returned by air to the high-altitude station, and the measurements were repeated on the 3rd and 12th day of their reinduction. Though body weight and total body water increased marginally on transfer to the lower altitude, body density remained more or less unchanged. There were significant increases in the thickness of skinfolds, even when body density had increased. During this period hand and foot volumes decreased significantly. Despite significant increases in thoracic skinfold thickness, the torso volume decreased slightly. On returning to high altitude, the soldiers lost body weight, were hypohydrated and showed reduced skinfold thickness. Fat losses calculated on the basis of reduction in skinfold thickness were far in excess of those calculated from losses in body weight and in total body water. As the reduced skinfold thickness was unrelated to changes in body water content at high altitude, it seems that such reductions are due to redistribution of blood in the skin. From the results of these investigations it is concluded that variations in skinfold thickness during acclimatisation to high altitude do not accurately represent the changes in body fat content.

Acclimatization↗
PubMed2001

Evaluation of body composition using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, skinfold thickness and bioelectrical impedance analysis in Japanese female college students.

We compared three methods for evaluating body composition: dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), skinfold thickness (Skinfolds), and bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA). Subjects were 155 healthy young college-aged Japanese females whose mean+/-SD (range) age, body height, body weight and body mass index (BMI) were 20.1+/-0.3 (19.6-21.1) y, 158.9+/-4.7 (145.4-172.6) cm, 52.0+/-6.8 (39.4-84.6) kg and 20.6+/-2.3 (16.5-32.5), respectively. Their mean skinfold thickness at the triceps and subscapular were 16.9+/-4.7 (8.0-31.0) and 16.0+/-5.7 (7.0-40.0) mm, respectively. Mean body fat mass percentages evaluated by DXA, Skinfolds and BIA were 29.6+/-5.1, 22.8+/- 5.3 and 25.8+/-4.7%, respectively. Body fat mass was 15.4+/-4.4, 12.1+/-4.5 and 13.6+/-4.5 kg, respectively. Simple correlation coefficients between the three methods for body fat mass percentages provided the following coefficients: r=0.741 for DXA vs. Skinfolds, r=0.792 for DXA vs. BIA and r=0.781 for Skinfolds vs. BIA. Simple correlation coefficients for body fat mass were as follows: r=0.898 for DXA vs. Skinfolds, r=0.927 for DXA vs. BIA and r=0.910 for Skinfolds vs. BIA (all p<0.001). There were significant differences in the values among the three methods with the Skinfolds providing the lowest body fat mass and percentage, and DXA the highest (p<0.001). They all appear to be strongly correlated for evaluating body composition: however, different cut-off values for defining obese and lean need to be defined for each method.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗
PubMed2001

Simple skinfold-thickness measurements complement conventional anthropometric assessments in predicting glucose tolerance.

BACKGROUND: Skinfold-thickness measurements are considered to have limited clinical utility. OBJECTIVE: To assess whether skinfold-thickness measurements may be a useful adjunct to conventional anthropometric assessments in predicting glucose and insulin regulation, we studied responses to replicate 75-g oral-glucose-tolerance tests (OGTTs) and performed simple anthropometry in a cross section of subjects. DESIGN: Thirty-five subjects completed the study: 11 lean [mean (+/-SEM) age: 33 +/- 3.2 y; body mass index (BMI; in kg/m(2)): 24.1 +/- 0.8; and percentage body fat (%BF): 11.5 +/- 1.5%], 12 normal-weight (age: 33 +/- 2.9 y; BMI: 23.9 +/- 0.7; and %BF: 24.3.5 +/- 1.3%), and 12 obese (age: 41 +/- 4.5 y; BMI: 34.5 +/- 1.7; and %BF: 34.2 +/- 1.5%) individuals. The lean and normal-weight groups were selected to have similar BMIs but different %BFs. We measured the participants' heights, weights, %BFs, waist circumferences, hip circumferences, and truncal and peripheral skinfold thicknesses. Subjects received nine 75-g OGTTs and blood samples were collected at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, and 120 min. Mean plasma glucose and insulin values were used to calculate the insulin sensitivity index. RESULTS: The obese group had higher plasma glucose concentrations and areas under the curve (AUCs) than did the normal-weight or lean group and higher plasma insulin concentrations and AUCs than did the lean group (P < 0.05). Stepwise multiple regression, with adjustment for demographic and anthropometric measurements, identified the following predictors: waist circumference, peripheral skinfold thickness, and BMI for fasting plasma glucose (partial R(2) = 0.20, 0.13, and 0.13, P < 0.05); waist circumference and truncal skinfold thickness for plasma glucose AUC (partial R(2) = 0.20 and 0.13, P < 0.05); age, waist-to-hip ratio, and peripheral skinfold thickness for fasting plasma insulin (partial R(2) = 0.26, 0.22, and 0.15, P < 0.05); truncal skinfold thickness for plasma insulin AUC (partial R(2) = 0.41, P < 0.001); and peripheral skinfold thickness for both 2-h plasma glucose (partial R(2) = 0.59, P < 0.001) and the insulin sensitivity index (partial R(2) = 0.49, P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Skinfold-thickness measurements may complement other established measurements for predicting abnormal glucose and insulin regulation.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1990

The assessment of the body fat percentage by skinfold thickness measurements in childhood and young adolescence.

The relationship of skinfold thicknesses to body density and of skinfold thicknesses to densitometrically determined body fat was evaluated in a group of 378 boys and girls, aged 7-20 years. According to their maturation level, they were divided into a prepubertal, a pubertal and a post-pubertal group. In each maturation group boys were older, had higher body-weights and body heights, higher body densities, lower percentage body fat, higher waist:hips ratios and higher trunk:total skinfolds ratios than girls. Body density in each maturation level could be quite precisely predicted by skinfold thicknesses. In prepubertal and pubertal boys and girls but not in post-pubertal boys and girls, age was also an important predicting variable for body density. The assessment of percentage body fat from skinfold thicknesses had a prediction error of 3-5%, which was highest in the prepubertal children. The prediction error is comparable to the prediction error of percentage body fat from skinfold thicknesses in adults, as reported in the literature. Only in post-pubertal boys and girls was the waist:hip ratio correlated with measures of body fatness. Moreover, only in the post-pubertal boys and in the pubertal and post-pubertal girls was the waist:hips ratio correlated with another measure of body fat distribution, the trunk:total skinfold ratio. The relative amount of internal body fat was found to be higher in the younger maturation groups. It is concluded that at younger ages the waist:hips ratio is a poor indicator of body fat distribution.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1981

Smoking in pregnancy: associations with skinfold thickness, maternal weight gain, and fetal size at birth.

Skinfold thickness is an index of subcutaneous fat, and certain maternal conditions during pregnancy affect the skinfold thicknesses of the baby. A study was performed to investigate the effect of smoking on skinfold thickness, maternal weight gain, and fetal size at birth. A total of 452 mothers with normal singleton pregnancies were groups as: non-smokers, light-to-moderate smokers, or heavy smokers. Maternal age, height, parity, and duration of pregnancy were similar in the three groups. Heavy smokers gained significantly less weight than non-smokers, but there was no significant difference in skinfold thickness. Babies born to smokers had lower birth weights and smaller head circumferences and were shorter than those born to non-smokers, but skinfold thicknesses were similar. The presence of a normal layer of subcutaneous fat in babies whose mothers smoked suggests that fetal growth retardation is not caused by nutritional deficiencies.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

Skinfold thickness, local subcutaneous blood flow and insulin absorption in diabetic patients.

The influence of skinfold thickness on the local subcutaneous blood flow (SBF) and absorption rate of subcutaneously injected and infused soluble insulin was investigated in insulin-dependent diabetic patients. The local 133Xenon washout technique was used for measuring SBF and the disappearance of 125I labelled insulin for measuring insulin absorption. A Harpenden skinfold caliper was used for measuring skinfold thickness. A large variation in skinfold thickness (range 6-40 mm, N = 50) was demonstrated. The SBF was curvilinear related to the skinfold thickness with decreasing SBF for increasing skinfold thickness (N = 50). A similar relationship was found between the SBF and the absorption rate of subcutaneously injected (N = 10) and infused (N = 7) insulin. The large variation in skinfold thickness and thus insulin absorption may partly explain the well-known large inter-individual variation in insulin absorption, and the different absorption rates from areas with different skinfold thickness should be taken into account when treating with insulin.

Absorption↗