[Serum iron and saturnism. II. Blood iron tolerance test in experimental saturnism].
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Blood↗
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[Serum iron and saturnism. V. Behavior of transferrin and of free erythrocyte protoporphyrin in professional saturnism].
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Erythrocytes↗
[Electrocardiographic findings in pre-saturnism and saturnism].
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Adult↗
Porphyrin metabolism in chronic saturnism and in various forms of anemia and liver disease unrelated to saturnism.
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Anemia↗
Morphological differences between Saturn's ultraviolet aurorae and those of Earth and Jupiter.
It has often been stated that Saturn's magnetosphere and aurorae are intermediate between those of Earth, where the dominant processes are solar wind driven, and those of Jupiter, where processes are driven by a large source of internal plasma. But this view is based on information about Saturn that is far inferior to what is now available. Here we report ultraviolet images of Saturn, which, when combined with simultaneous Cassini measurements of the solar wind and Saturn kilometric radio emission, demonstrate that its aurorae differ morphologically from those of both Earth and Jupiter. Saturn's auroral emissions vary slowly; some features appear in partial corotation whereas others are fixed to the solar wind direction; the auroral oval shifts quickly in latitude; and the aurora is often not centred on the magnetic pole nor closed on itself. In response to a large increase in solar wind dynamic pressure Saturn's aurora brightened dramatically, the brightest auroral emissions moved to higher latitudes, and the dawn side polar regions were filled with intense emissions. The brightening is reminiscent of terrestrial aurorae, but the other two variations are not. Rather than being intermediate between the Earth and Jupiter, Saturn's auroral emissions behave fundamentally differently from those at the other planets.
Journal Article↗
A comparison of the atmospheres of Jupiter and Saturn: deep atmospheric composition, cloud structure, vertical mixing, and origin.
We present our current understanding of the composition, vertical mixing, cloud structure and the origin of the atmospheres of Jupiter and Saturn. Available observations point to a much more vigorous vertical mixing in Saturn's middle-upper atmosphere than in Jupiter's. The nearly cloud-free nature of the Galileo probe entry site, a 5-micron hotspot, is consistent with the depletion of condensable volatiles to great depths, which is attributed to local meteorology. Somewhat similar depletion of water may be present in the 5-micron bright regions of Saturn also. The supersolar abundances of heavy elements, particularly C and S in Jupiter's atmosphere and C in Saturn's, as well as the progressive increase of C from Jupiter to Saturn and beyond, tend to support the icy planetesimal model of the formation of the giant planets and their atmospheres. However, much work remains to be done, especially in the area of laboratory studies, including identification of possible new microwave absorbers, and modelling, in order to resolve the controversy surrounding the large discrepancy between Jupiter's global ammonia abundance, hence the nitrogen elemental ratio, derived from the earth-based microwave observations and that inferred from the analysis of the Galileo probe-orbiter radio attenuation data for the hotspot. We look forward to the observations from Cassini-Huygens spacecraft which are expected to result not only in a rich harvest of information for Saturn, but a better understanding of the formation of the giant planets and their atmospheres when these data are combined with those that exist for Jupiter.
Ammonia↗
Lagrange L4/L5 points and the origin of our Moon and Saturn's moons and rings.
The current standard theory of the origin of the Moon is that the Earth was hit by a giant impactor the size of Mars causing ejection of debris from its mantle that coalesced to form the moon; but where did this Mars-sized impactor come from? Isotopic evidence suggests that it came from 1 AU radius in the solar nebula, and computer simulations are consistent with its approaching Earth on a zero-energy parabolic trajectory. How could such a large object form at 1 AU in a quiescent disk of planetesimals without having already collided with the Earth at an earlier epoch before having the chance to grow large? Belbruno and Gott propose that the giant impactor could have formed in a stable orbit from debris at the Earth's Lagrange point L(5) (or L(4)). It would grow quietly by accretion at L(5) (or L(4)), but eventually gravitational perturbations by other growing planetesimals would kick it out into a horseshoe orbit and finally into a chaotic creeping orbit, which Belbruno and Gott show would, with high probability, hit the Earth on a near zero-energy parabolic trajectory. We can see other examples of this phenomenon occurring in the solar system. Asteroid 2002AA29 is in a horseshoe orbit relative to the Earth that looks exactly like the horseshoe orbits that Belbruno and Gott found for objects that had been perturbed from L(4)/L(5). The regular moons of Saturn are made of ice and have the same albedo as the ring particles (ice chunks, plus some dust). We (J. R. Gott, R. Vanderbei, and E. Belbruno) propose that the regular icy moons of Saturn (out to the orbit of Titan), which are all in nearly circular orbits, formed out of a thin disk of planetesimals (ice chunks) rather like the rings of Saturn today only larger in extent. In such a situation formation of objects at L(4)/L(5) might be expected. Indeed, Saturn's moon Dione is accompanied by moons (Helene and Polydeuces) at both L(4) and L(5) Lagrange points, and Saturn's moon Tethys is also accompanied by moons (Telesto and Calypso) at both L(4) and L(5) Lagrange points. Epimetheus is in a horseshoe orbit relative to Janus that is exactly like the horseshoe orbit expected for an object that has been perturbed from a location at L(4)/L(5). We propose that the rings of Saturn visible today are all that remains of this original disk; they lie inside the Roche limit where tidal forces have simply prevented the formation of large moons by accretion. Further out, the icy particles have accumulated into icy moons. Objects in external solar systems on horseshoe orbits (like those of Epimetheus relative to Janus) could be detected by a slow sinusoidal variation with time of the calculated mass of a planet from radial velocity measurements.
Journal Article↗
Compositional maps of Saturn's moon Phoebe from imaging spectroscopy.
The origin of Phoebe, which is the outermost large satellite of Saturn, is of particular interest because its inclined, retrograde orbit suggests that it was gravitationally captured by Saturn, having accreted outside the region of the solar nebula in which Saturn formed. By contrast, Saturn's regular satellites (with prograde, low-inclination, circular orbits) probably accreted within the sub-nebula in which Saturn itself formed. Here we report imaging spectroscopy of Phoebe resulting from the Cassini-Huygens spacecraft encounter on 11 June 2004. We mapped ferrous-iron-bearing minerals, bound water, trapped CO2, probable phyllosilicates, organics, nitriles and cyanide compounds. Detection of these compounds on Phoebe makes it one of the most compositionally diverse objects yet observed in our Solar System. It is likely that Phoebe's surface contains primitive materials from the outer Solar System, indicating a surface of cometary origin.
Journal Article↗
The formation of Uranus and Neptune in the Jupiter-Saturn region of the Solar System.
Planets are believed to have formed through the accumulation of a large number of small bodies. In the case of the gas-giant planets Jupiter and Saturn, they accreted a significant amount of gas directly from the protosolar nebula after accumulating solid cores of about 5-15 Earth masses. Such models, however, have been unable to produce the smaller ice giants Uranus and Neptune at their present locations, because in that region of the Solar System the small planetary bodies will have been more widely spaced, and less tightly bound gravitationally to the Sun. When applied to the current Jupiter-Saturn zone, a recent theory predicts that, in addition to the solid cores of Jupiter and Saturn, two or three other solid bodies of comparable mass are likely to have formed. Here we report the results of model calculations that demonstrate that such cores will have been gravitationally scattered outwards as Jupiter, and perhaps Saturn, accreted nebular gas. The orbits of these cores then evolve into orbits that resemble those of Uranus and Neptune, as a result of gravitational interactions with the small bodies in the outer disk of the protosolar nebula.
Evolution, Planetary↗
A strong decrease in Saturn's equatorial jet at cloud level.
The atmospheres of the giant planets Jupiter and Saturn have a puzzling system of zonal (east-west) winds alternating in latitude, with the broad and intense equatorial jets on Saturn having been observed previously to reach a velocity of about 470 m x s(-1) at cloud level. Globally, the location and intensity of Jupiter's jets are stable in time to within about ten per cent, but little is known about the stability of Saturn's jet system. The long-term behaviour of these winds is an important discriminator between models for giant-planet circulations. Here we report that Saturn's winds show a large drop in the velocity of the equatorial jet of about 200 m x s(-1) from 1996 to 2002. By contrast, the other measured jets (primarily in the southern hemisphere) appear stable when compared to the Voyager wind profile of 1980-81.
Journal Article↗
High-velocity streams of dust originating from Saturn.
High-velocity submicrometre-sized dust particles expelled from the jovian system have been identified by dust detectors on board several spacecraft. On the basis of periodicities in the dust impact rate, Jupiter's moon Io was found to be the dominant source of the streams. The grains become positively charged within the plasma environment of Jupiter's magnetosphere, and gain energy from its co-rotational electric field. Outside the magnetosphere, the dynamics of the grains are governed by the interaction with the interplanetary magnetic field that eventually forms the streams. A similar process was suggested for Saturn. Here we report the discovery by the Cassini spacecraft of bursts of high-velocity dust particles (> or = 100 km s(-1)) within approximately 70 million kilometres of Saturn. Most of the particles detected at large distances appear to originate from the outskirts of Saturn's outermost main ring. All bursts of dust impacts detected within 150 Saturn radii are characterized by impact directions markedly different from those measured between the bursts, and they clearly coincide with the spacecraft's traversals through streams of compressed solar wind.
Journal Article↗
Solar wind dynamic pressure and electric field as the main factors controlling Saturn's aurorae.
The interaction of the solar wind with Earth's magnetosphere gives rise to the bright polar aurorae and to geomagnetic storms, but the relation between the solar wind and the dynamics of the outer planets' magnetospheres is poorly understood. Jupiter's magnetospheric dynamics and aurorae are dominated by processes internal to the jovian system, whereas Saturn's magnetosphere has generally been considered to have both internal and solar-wind-driven processes. This hypothesis, however, is tentative because of limited simultaneous solar wind and magnetospheric measurements. Here we report solar wind measurements, immediately upstream of Saturn, over a one-month period. When combined with simultaneous ultraviolet imaging we find that, unlike Jupiter, Saturn's aurorae respond strongly to solar wind conditions. But in contrast to Earth, the main controlling factor appears to be solar wind dynamic pressure and electric field, with the orientation of the interplanetary magnetic field playing a much more limited role. Saturn's magnetosphere is, therefore, strongly driven by the solar wind, but the solar wind conditions that drive it differ from those that drive the Earth's magnetosphere.
Journal Article↗
Saturn's moon Phoebe as a captured body from the outer Solar System.
The orbital properties of Phoebe, one of Saturn's irregular moons, suggest that it was captured by the ringed planet's gravitational field rather than formed in situ. Phoebe's generally dark surface shows evidence of water ice, but otherwise the surface most closely resembles that of C-type asteroids and small outer Solar System bodies such as Chiron and Pholus that are thought to have originated in the Kuiper belt. A close fly-by of Phoebe by the Cassini-Huygens spacecraft on 11 June 2004 (19 days before the spacecraft entered orbit around Saturn) provided an opportunity to test the hypothesis that this moon did not form in situ during Saturn's formation, but is instead a product of the larger protoplanetary disk or 'solar nebula'. Here we derive the rock-to-ice ratio of Phoebe using its density combined with newly measured oxygen and carbon abundances in the solar photosphere. Phoebe's composition is close to that derived for other solar nebula bodies such as Triton and Pluto, but is very different from that of the regular satellites of Saturn, supporting Phoebe's origin as a captured body from the outer Solar System.
Journal Article↗
Cassini discovers a kinematic spiral ring around Saturn.
Since the time of the Voyager flybys of Saturn in 1980-1981, Saturn's eccentric F ring has been known to be accompanied on either side by faint strands of material. New Cassini observations show that these strands, initially interpreted as concentric ring segments, are in fact connected and form a single one-arm trailing spiral winding at least three times around Saturn. The spiral rotates around Saturn with the orbital motion of its constituent particles. This structure is likely the result of differential orbital motion stretching an initial cloud of particles scattered from the dense core of the F ring. Different scenarios of formation, implying ringlet-satellite interactions, are explored. A recently discovered moon candidate, S/2004 S6, is on an orbit that crosses the F-ring core at the intersection of the spiral with the ring, which suggests a dynamical connection between S/2004 S6 and the spiral.
Journal Article↗
The use of Saturn II lenses in keratoconus.
We studied Saturn II contact lenses in keratoconus patients who were intolerant to other available contact lenses. A total of 24 patients, who were followed for up to 15 months, participated in the study. Visual acuities improved significantly following fitting with the Saturn II contact lens; whereas only one eye in the series was correctable to 20/20 before fitting, eight eyes were corrected to 20/20 following fitting. A great number of lenses had to be replaced during the study because of deposit formation and tearing at the interface (rate of replacement: 0.52 lenses per eye per month). A variety of complications occurred during lens wear, resulting in only six eyes wearing the Saturn II lens at the close of the study (out of 46 eyes that had started wearing the lens). Discomfort due to tightness of the peripheral segment was the most common cause of lens discontinuation. We conclude that the Saturn II lens was inadequate for fitting patients with advanced keratoconus.
Adolescent↗
Terrestrial planet and asteroid formation in the presence of giant planets. I. Relative velocities of planetesimals subject to Jupiter and Saturn perturbations.
We investigate the orbital evolution of 10(13)- to 10(25) -g planetesimals near 1 AU and in the asteroid belt (near 2.6 AU) prior to the stage of evolution when the mutual perturbations between the planetesimals become important. We include nebular gas drag and the effects of Jupiter and Saturn at their present masses and in their present orbits. Gas drag introduces a size-dependent phasing of the secular perturbations, which leads to a pronounced dip in encounter velocities (Venc) between bodies of similar mass. Plantesimals of identical mass have Venc approximately 1 and approximately 10 m s-1 (near 1 and 2.6 AU, respectively) while bodies differing by approximately 10 in mass have Venc approximately 10 and approximately 100 m s-1 (near 1 and 2.6 AU, respectively). Under these conditions, growth, rather than erosion, will occur only by collisions of bodies of nearly the same mass. There will be essentially no gravitational focusing between bodies less than 10(22) to 10(25) g, allowing growth of planetary embryos in the terrestrial planet region to proceed in a slower nonrunaway fashion. The environment in the asteroid belt will be even more forbidding and it is uncertain whether even the severely depleted present asteroid belt could form under these conditions. The perturbations of Jupiter and Saturn are quite sensitive to their semi-major axes and decrease when the planets' heliocentric distances are increased to allow for protoplanet migration. It is possible, though not clearly demonstrated, that this could produce a depleted asteroid belt but permit formation of a system of terrestrial planet embryos on a approximately 10(6)-year timescale, initially by nonrunaway growth and transitioning to runaway growth after approximately 10(5) years. The calculations reported here are valid under the condition that the relative velocities of the bodies are determined only by Jupiter and Saturn perturbations and by gas drag, with no mutual perturbations between planetesimals. If, while subject to these conditions, the bodies become large enough for their mutual perturbations to influence their velocity and size evolution significantly, the problem becomes much more complex. This problem is under investigation.
Astronomical Phenomena↗
Dynamics of Saturn's magnetosphere from MIMI during Cassini's orbital insertion.
The Magnetospheric Imaging Instrument (MIMI) onboard the Cassini spacecraft observed the saturnian magnetosphere from January 2004 until Saturn orbit insertion (SOI) on 1 July 2004. The MIMI sensors observed frequent energetic particle activity in interplanetary space for several months before SOI. When the imaging sensor was switched to its energetic neutral atom (ENA) operating mode on 20 February 2004, at approximately 10(3) times Saturn's radius RS (0.43 astronomical units), a weak but persistent signal was observed from the magnetosphere. About 10 days before SOI, the magnetosphere exhibited a day-night asymmetry that varied with an approximately 11-hour periodicity. Once Cassini entered the magnetosphere, in situ measurements showed high concentrations of H+, H2+, O+, OH+, and H2O+ and low concentrations of N+. The radial dependence of ion intensity profiles implies neutral gas densities sufficient to produce high loss rates of trapped ions from the middle and inner magnetosphere. ENA imaging has revealed a radiation belt that resides inward of the D ring and is probably the result of double charge exchange between the main radiation belt and the upper layers of Saturn's exosphere.
Atmosphere↗
Cassini Imaging Science: initial results on Saturn's atmosphere.
The Cassini Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) began observing Saturn in early February 2004. From analysis of cloud motions through early October 2004, we report vertical wind shear in Saturn's equatorial jet and a maximum wind speed of approximately 375 meters per second, a value that differs from both Hubble Space Telescope and Voyager values. We also report a particularly active narrow southern mid-latitude region in which dark ovals are observed both to merge with each other and to arise from the eruptions of large, bright storms. Bright storm eruptions are correlated with Saturn's electrostatic discharges, which are thought to originate from lightning.
Atmosphere↗