Mean airflow rates during phonation over a comfortable duration and maximum sustained phonation. Results from 60 normal adult subjects.
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Adult↗
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Maximum phonation time and air usage during phonation. Clinical study.
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Female↗
Maximum phonation time and air flow rate during phonation: simple clinical tests for vocal function.
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Adult↗
The role of the posterior cricoarytenoid muscle in phonation: an electromyographic investigation in dogs.
The activity of the posterior cricoarytenoid muscle during respiration has been well investigated electromyographically. Its activity during phonation, however, has not been studied systematically. We, therefore, focused our attention on the phonatory activity of the posterior cricoarytenoid muscle to confirm whether it also contracts during phonation, as has been reported by some researchers. In our series of 12 adult dogs, the posterior cricoarytenoid was active in 11 dogs and inactive in one dog during phonation. Our present study also showed that the posterior cricoarytenoid activity was stronger for phonation than for inspiration in 6, stronger for inspiration than for phonation in 3, and the same for phonation and inspiration in 2 dogs. The results obtained from the present electromyographic evaluation demonstrated that the posterior cricoarytenoid is activated during phonation. The authors believe that the posterior cricoarytenoid muscle has phonatory function and that the phonatory effect of this muscle on the vocal cord may play an important role in precise glottis control.
Animals↗
[Image analysis of the contour of paralyzed vocal cord during phonation].
The development of digital radiography (DR) has made it possible to analyze the contour of the laryngeal soft tissue structures in more detail than the conventional screen-film method. We analyzed the contour of the paralyzed vocal cord during phonation using motion subtraction technique. Forty four patients with unilateral recurrent nerve palsy were examined. The images were obtained by means of frontal tomography of the larynx during quiet inspiration and normal (expiratory) phonation. Tomography during inspiratory phonation was also examined in ten patients who can perform it. The thickness of the slices was 5.0 mm. The authors found that the free margin of the paralyzed vocal cord shifted by the aerodynamic power along the direction of the air flow, i.e. it shifted to the cranial direction during normal phonation and to the caudal during inspiratory phonation. The displacement phenomenon of the paralyzed vocal cord was significantly correlated with the degree of vocal cord atrophy (p less than 0.01). The result would indicate that the aerodynamic power during phonation is one of the factors eliciting the higher position of the paralyzed vocal cord during phonation, in addition to its anatomical displacement due to abduction of the paralyzed arytenoid. This notion should be taken into consideration in selecting the surgical approach for the treatment of unilateral recurrent nerve palsy.
Adult↗
Maximum phonation time for children with normal voices.
Maximum phonation time (MPT) data were collected for 286 male and female children between the ages 3-6 and 17-11. Subjects sustained phonation of the vowel/a/for 14 consecutive trials. The influence of sex, age, and multiple trials on MPT was studied. The group mean MPT for the male subjects was significantly longer than for the female subjects. Generally, phonation time increased with age for both sexes. A definite monotonic increase in length of sustained phonation was not apparent across all age levels. Optimum MPT performance can be enhanced by using repeated trials, and by providing visual feedback and encouragement regarding depth of inhalation, verbal instructions and encouragement regarding increased phonation time, and visual feedback regarding length of sustained phonation prior to and during each trial. The large intra- and intersubject variability in MPT performance reported in this study prevents valid individual-group mean MPT comparisons. A more discriminatory clinical interpretation of MPT is necessary.
Adolescent↗
Effects of posture, phonation and observer on Mallampati classification.
We have studied the effects of phonation and posture on the Mallampati classification of view of the pharyngeal structures. Differences between observers were allowed for by the experimental design and log-linear modelling. Sixty-four patients were assessed on the ward, sitting upright, with and without phonation, by each of two observers. Another 64 patients were assessed without phonation, but both upright and supine, again by both observers. Phonation (the patient saying "Ah") produced a marked, systematic improvement of view; moving to the supine posture produced a small, systematic, non-significant worsening of the view. Differences between observers were non-systematic but substantial. About 25% of patients phonated spontaneously. It is recommended that anaesthetists make their own assessments of Mallampati classification, with the patient in either of the postures but always either with or without phonation, and thereby gradually "calibrate" their assessments against the degree of difficulty encountered in intubation.
Humans↗
Cerebellar regulation of phonation in rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta).
Five rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) were trained to emit a "coo" vocalization with a duration of at least 500 msec. After stable performance was achieved cerebellar lesions were introduced, and various pre- and postlesion measures of phonation and of laryngeal EMG activity were compared to assess the effects of the lesions. The phonatory changes were interpreted with respect to possible laryngeal or respiratory modifications. The relation between fundamental frequency and intensity of phonation was changed in some animals, with no obvious alterations in either fundamental frequency or intensity considered separately. Intensity of phonation was decreased while duration was prolonged in two animals. Fundamental frequency of phonation was also affected in some animals. Reliable laryngeal EMG was obtained in two animals and was affected by cerebellar lesions. These results indicate that normal cerebellar function is involved in the control of fundamental frequency, intensity, duration, and the coordination of the laryngeal and respiratory systems for the control of phonation.
Acoustics↗
Modifying electroglottograph-identified intervals of phonation: the effect on stuttering.
Single-subject experiments were conducted with an adolescent and an adult male who stutter to assess the effect on stuttering of changing the frequency of phonation intervals that were within prescribed duration ranges during spontaneous speech. Electroglottograph-identified intervals of phonation were measured using a computer-assisted biofeedback system. Both subjects demonstrated that their stuttering could be controlled by modifying the frequency of phonation intervals within short duration ranges. The experimental effects not only replicated earlier findings but were demonstrated to be independent of changes in speaking rate, or alterations to other intervals of phonation, and produced little disruption to speech naturalness. The theoretic implications of these findings are discussed.
Adult↗
An aeroacoustic approach to phonation.
A fluid mechanical, or aeroacoustic, point of view is followed to study possible sources of sound during phonation. Concentration is on two features of the vocal tract during phonation: abrupt area change from the glottis to the vocal tract and the finite length of the vocal tract. With these features, a source of sound distinct from the volume velocity source can be identified and a preliminary account of its effect on the acoustic field given. This source of sound is an oscillating force resulting from an interaction of rotational fluid motion with itself. Because of the schematic nature of the geometry of the model used here, this source may be considerably modified in actual phonation. It is concluded that specification of volume velocity is not enough to specify the source during phonation, even neglecting source-tract interaction.
Humans↗
The effects of continuous phonation on 133xenon-inhalation air curves (of the kind used in deriving regional cerebral blood flow).
Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) may be measured with inhalation techniques that use end-expired values of radioactivity to estimate the isotope concentration in arterial blood. These end-expired data are used as an input function in a mathematical equation to derive rCBF. End-expired air is assumed normally to be in equilibrium with the arterial blood at the alveolar surface of the lung during regular (passive) breathing; this assumption may not be valid during continuous phonation. We therefore have analyzed breathing (inhalation/exhalation) patterns and end-expired radioactivity (133Xe) during (1) speaking, (2) singing, and (3) humming of the national anthem, and also during (4) passive breathing. Statistically significant differences in breathing patterns were measured between a group of nonmusicians and two groups of musicians (singers) during the phonation tasks: The nonmusicians breathed more often (and more rapidly) and exhibited less variability in their breathing patterns than did the musicians. Notwithstanding these differences, the shapes of smoothed functions derived from the end-expired values were not influenced appreciably during phonation (except possibly during talking). The latter finding suggests that estimates of rCBF derived with these data should not be confounded seriously because of the continuous phonation.
Adolescent↗
Firing pattern of motor units in the vocal muscle during phonation.
Electromyographic activity of the vocal muscle was analysed in 10 subjects during the phonation of different vowels and with different voice pitches. Analysis of the firing pattern of single or a few motor units was performed with the aid of an amplitude discriminator on the computer. The firing rate increases with increasing voice pitch (in the region co-ho the decrease of mean interspike interval with the slope 30-40 msec/octave was found). In the firing pattern of several motor units the periodicity was observed to be correlated with the voice pitch. The period of 8 msec corresponding H, 123 Hz, decreased to about 6 msec during phonation of do, 147 Hz. The periodicity was present both in units with pure prephonatory activity and in units which were active during phonation. It seems possible that the activity in the vocal muscle changes characteristically during the phonation of different vowels.
Adult↗
An experimental study of the circulation of the vocal fold on phonation.
The ischemic change of the vocal fold on phonation was studied with an oxygen electrode using the canine vocal fold. Oxygen pressures of a limited area of the vocal fold were measured in the lamina propria and vocal muscle at the middle of the membranous portion. The results are summarized as follows: oxygen pressure in each area decreased on phonation as compared with respiratory movement, an ischemic change of the vocal fold occurred on phonation, and the response in the lamina propria was less than that of the vocal muscle.
Animals↗
Acoustic characteristics of perceived versus actual vocal age in controlled phonation by adult females.
The purpose of this investigation was to obtain information on the acoustic characteristics of women's voices as a function of perceived versus actual age. Tape recordings of whispered and normally phonated /ae/ vowels were obtained from 75 women in three age groups (25-35, 45-55, and 70-80 years). One-second segments of phonemically representative /ae/ vowels were played to 23 listeners for relative age judgments. Phonated vowel productions were analyzed in terms of mean fundamental frequency, fundamental frequency standard deviation, and jitter ratio, as well as F1 and F2 frequencies. Whispered vowels were analyzed only in terms of F1 and F2 frequencies. Multiple regression analysis revealed that older age judgments based on phonated vowels were significantly associated with higher fundamental frequency standard deviation values and lower mean fundamental frequency values. Older age judgments based on whispered vowels were significantly associated with lower F1 frequencies. Results of this investigation suggest that both phonatory and resonance features play a role in defining age characteristics of women's voices. Acoustic cues associated with perceived age generally agreed with acoustic findings as a function of actual age.
Adult↗
Phonation threshold pressure: a missing link in glottal aerodynamics.
Phonation threshold pressure has previously been defined as the minimum lung pressure required to initiate phonation. By modeling the dependence of this pressure on fundamental frequency, it is shown that relatively simple aerodynamic relations for time-varying flow in the glottis are obtained. Lung pressure and peak glottal flow are nearly linearly related, but not proportional. For this reason, traditional power law relations between vocal power and lung pressure may not hold. Glottal impendance for time-varying flow should be defined differentially rather than as a simple ratio between lung pressure and peak flow. It is shown that the peak flow, the peak flow derivative, the open quotient, and the speed quotient of inverse-filtered glottal flow waveforms all depend explicitly on phonation threshold pressure. Data from singers are compared with those from nonsingers. The primary difference is that singers obtain two to three times greater peak flow for a given lung pressure, suggesting that they adjust their glottal or vocal tract impedance for optimal flow transfer between the source and the resonantor.
Female↗
Regional blood flow to the canine vocal fold at rest and during phonation.
Recent reports have suggested that blood flow to the vocal fold decreases during phonation. However, these studies relied on indirect measures of blood flow, such as tissue oxygen tension. Among the differing methods of measuring blood flow, one of the most sensitive is the microsphere surface technique. This technique has been effective in assessing the overall and regional blood flow to a number of different organs, including the cochlea. Employing an in vivo canine model, we injected microspheres into the left atrium. From there, they were distributed and became entrapped in the tissues in proportion to blood flow. We measured the blood flow to the entire vocal fold, as well as the lamina propria and muscularis layers. The results revealed a statistically significant (p less than .002) increase in blood flow on phonation. The increase, however, was due to increased flow to the muscularis layer. The flow to the lamina propria remained unchanged during phonation.
Animals↗
The patient requiring mechanical ventilatory support: use of the cuffed tracheostomy "talk" tube to establish phonation.
Many patients requiring mechanical ventilatory support via a cuffed tracheostomy tube possess a normal larynx and intact linguistic and cognitive abilities yet are unable to communicate normally because of the interruption of airflow through the intact larynx. The usual alternative means of communication such as writing, gesturing, or the use of an electrolarynx have obvious limitations and are often impossible when there is neurologic motor impairment. Frustration, depression, and compromised medical care are frequent side effects of the patient's inability to communicate. An adapted speaking-aid tracheostomy tube has been available since 1975 for the patient requiring mechanical ventilatory support. However, acceptance and satisfaction with this aid to phonation have not been uniform and there have been few claims of consistent acquisition of phonation. Reasons for success or failure have been unclear. We wish to report experience with the single-cuffed tracheostomy "talk" tube in 19 patients, 14 of whom acquired satisfactory functional laryngeal phonation. Indications for its use, technical aspects of the tube, solutions of common problems, and potential reasons for failure are discussed.
Adolescent↗
Stability of mandibular position in continuous vowel phonation.
The stability of the mandibular positions during continuous phonation of the five vowels [( a], [e], [i], [o], [u]) and the relationship between each position and the rest position were examined for 30 subjects (males, 23 to 35 years of age) using the mandibular kinesiograph. Each subject had a complete or nearly complete natural dentition with no marked occlusal abnormalities. The mandibular position during continuous phonation of the vowel [i] appeared stable and was closely related to the rest position. It is thus suggested that the use of continuous [i] phonation is a viable method for determining the occlusal vertical dimension.
Adult↗