PubMed2026
PURPOSE: High glucose (HG), hypoxia (Hyp), and their combination are major risk factors for proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR). Although these conditions induce features of the Warburg-like metabolic reprogramming in human retinal endothelial cells (HRECs), it remains unclear whether they produce distinct metabolic and angiogenic subtypes. This study aimed to characterize the Warburg-like-associated metabolic heterogeneity induced by these PDR-related risk factors and evaluate the ability of supervised machine-learning models to distinguish these subtypes. METHODS: HRECs were cultured under normoglycemic, HG, Hyp (2% O2), and combined HG-Hyp conditions. Untargeted LC-MS/MS metabolomics quantified metabolites spanning carbohydrates, amino acids, nucleotides, and lipids. Principal component analysis (PCA) assessed overall metabolic variation, and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis identified metabolic pathways associated with angiogenesis. In vitro angiogenesis assays measured endothelial tube formation and branching. Nine supervised classifiers (decision tree, logistic regression, naïve Bayes, random forest, K-Nearest Neighbors, neural network, gradient boosting, AdaBoost, and Support Vector Machine) were trained on the highest-ranked metabolites selected by the Information Gain Ratio feature-ranking approach. Model performance was evaluated using 10-fold cross-validation, leave-one-out cross-validation (LOOCV), permutation testing, and a classifier stability analysis under biologically meaningful distributional shift using an independent chemically induced hypoxia model (CoCl2). RESULTS: PCA revealed partial separation of metabolic profiles across conditions, indicating different Warburg-like metabolic subtypes. The combined HG-Hyp condition exhibited enhanced angiogenic potential relative to either HG or Hyp alone. KEGG pathway enrichment analysis identified fatty acid biosynthesis and elongation among the most significantly enriched pathways in HRECs under combined HG-Hyp conditions, alongside amino sugar and nucleotide sugar metabolism, glycerophospholipid metabolism, the pentose phosphate pathway, and glycolysis/gluconeogenesis. Supervised machine-learning classifiers distinguished these metabolic subtypes, with AdaBoost and gradient Boosting showing the most balanced, reproducible performance across 10-fold cross-validation, LOOCV, and permutation testing, and remaining the most reliable classifiers under domain-shift testing (area under the curve = 0.88, P = 0.0061). CONCLUSIONS: In this exploratory analysis, HG, Hyp, and their combination drive metabolically and functionally distinct subtypes of Warburg-like metabolic reprogramming in HRECs, with HG-Hyp in combination producing a highly angiogenic phenotype. Boosting-based ensemble classifiers provide a promising framework for detecting these subtypes even under domain-shift conditions, warranting validation in larger independent datasets. TRANSLATIONAL RELEVANCE: Integrating metabolomics with machine-learning classification offers a strategy to identify Warburg-like metabolic subtypes in retinal endothelial cells, providing insights into angiogenic mechanisms and guiding the development of targeted diagnostics or therapeutics for PDR.