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PubMed1988

Problem-solving skills, solving problems and problem-based learning.

This paper reviews the empirical evidence in support of the three concepts in the title. To the extent that a skill should be a general strategy, applicable in a variety of situations, and independent of the specific knowledge of the situation, there is little evidence that problem-solving skills, as described and measured in medical education, possess these characteristics. Instead there is an accumulation of evidence that expert problem-solving in medicine is dependent on (I) a wealth of prior specific experiences which can be used in routine solution of problems by pattern recognition processes, and (2) elaborated conceptual knowledge applicable to the occasional problematic situation. The use of problem-based learning (PBL) as an educational strategy is explored. In particular, the evidence suggesting the compatibility of PBL with this theory of expertise is discussed. Finally, I review some issues in the design of PBL curricula from the perspective of the proposed model of expertise.

Clinical Competence↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Problem solving and problem orientation in generalized anxiety disorder.

The present study's main objective is to examine whether problem orientation and problem-solving skills differ according to generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) symptom level or clinical status (seeking help for GAD). Its secondary goal is to examine whether two cognitive variables (intolerance of uncertainty and beliefs about worry) vary according to GAD symptom level or clinical status. Three groups of subjects participated in the study: (a) nonclinical moderate worriers (N = 15), (b) nonclinical subjects meeting GAD criteria by questionnaire (N = 14), and (c) GAD patients (N = 14). Problem orientation and problem-solving skills were measured with the Social Problem-Solving Inventory (D'Zurilla & Nezu, 1990) and the Problem-Solving Inventory (Heppner & Petersen, 1982), whereas the cognitive variables were assessed with the Intolerance of Uncertainty questionnaire (Freeston, Rhéaume, Letarte, Dugas, & Ladouceur, 1994) and the Why Worry? questionnaire (Freeston, Rhéaume et al., 1994). The results show that problem orientation, intolerance of uncertainty, and beliefs about worry were similar in subjects meeting GAD criteria by questionnaire and GAD patients, whereas moderate worriers had different scores on these variables. Thus, these variables are more highly affected by GAD symptom level than by clinical status. The results also show that problem-solving skills were unaffected by symptom level and clinical status, thereby indicating that knowledge of problem-solving skills is unrelated to both GAD symptom level and GAD clinical status. The findings are discussed in terms of their theoretical and clinical implications.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Problem solving and problem-solving education in dentistry.

Academic education in dentistry should lead to the capability to solve complex open problems. The student entering university is only familiar with closed problems. Research into the making of a medical diagnosis has shown that novices do so differently than experts. These research results are summarised and are presumed to be transferable to dental diagnosing and treatment planning. Examples of this transfer are given. Until 1 or 2 decades ago, education in problem solving was done only by extensive teacher-student interaction in clinical and scientific work. Presently, this is no longer adequate because of reduction of curriculum time for these activities. Therefore other methods have been developed in many places. These methods include the use of a problem-solving model (heuristic). Based on models in the literature, 3 new models are presented. These are intended for novices that solve a dentally relevant open problem in basic sciences, for novices that solve a clinical dental problem, and for more expert students that solve such a problem. Diagrams and examples are given.

Curriculum↗
PubMed1992

Depression, problem-solving ability, and problem-solving appraisals.

Behavioral analytic methods were used to create a college student version of the Means Ends Problem Solving Procedure (MEPS). This instrument then was administered with measures of perceived problem-solving ability to depressed and nondepressed students to determine whether differences exist in both problem-solving ability and problem-solving appraisal. Analyses revealed that depressed subjects had more negative expectations and lower appraisals of their problem-solving ability. However, the groups did not differ in terms of the actual quality of their behavioral solutions to interpersonal, intrapersonal, and emotional problem situations. The results are interpreted as support for the role of cognitive factors in depression and problem-solving across a range of problem-solving situations.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Psychology. 6: What's your problem? A consideration of problem solving.

A substantial component of nursing is concerned with solving problems, or helping patients and clients to solve problems for themselves. This article considers problem solving in a range of nursing practice settings and outlines how psychology can help to explain and inform this process. The diverse nature of problems which nurses might encounter in their work are discussed and recommendations for the application of problem-solving strategies are offered. No single approach to problem solving is sufficiently flexible to address the complex challenges met in nursing practice, and hence an eclectic approach to problem solving is proposed.

Algorithms↗
PubMed2000

Clinical problem-solving in nursing: insights from the literature.

This paper reviews the literature surrounding the research on how individuals solve problems. The purpose of the review is to heighten awareness amongst nurses in general, and nurse academics in particular about the theories developed, approaches taken and conclusions reached on how clinicians problem-solve. The nursing process, which is heavily used and frequently described as a problem-solving approach to nursing care, requires a deductive reasoning process which is not the problem-solving process in use during care-giving activities. More knowledge is required on what process is in place as we develop as a profession. The literature highlights the complexities involved in attempting to uncover thinking processes. The main research approaches to discovering problem-solving strategies in the past three decades have been from a cognitive perspective, with two main theories, decision-theory and information processing-theory, underpinning the majority of studies conducted. None of the research approaches used to date has resulted in the identification of a general model of problem-solving that is consistent across tasks or disciplines. However, early hypothesis activation with subsequent testing of the hypothesis seems to be consistent in clinicians across disciplines.

Clinical Competence↗
PubMed1994

Worrying, social problem-solving abilities, and social problem-solving confidence.

This study investigated the relationship between worrying and two features of social problem solving: problem-solving ability and confidence. However, while levels of worrying were significantly related to both poor problem-solving confidence and poor perceived control over the problem-solving process, worrying was unrelated to problem-solving ability per se. The failure to find a relationship between worrying and social problem-solving skills was found separately at both low and high levels of worrying, and also when levels of trait anxiety had been controlled for. These results provide no support for the hypothesis that chronic worrying results from poor social problem-solving abilities, but the results are consistent with the belief that worrying is primarily an anxiety-related phenomenon with any problem-solving deficits occurring at the level of solution implementation rather than solution generation.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

Mental representation of three-dimensional objects in visual problem solving and recognition.

Subjects inspected sets of flat, separated orthographic projections of surfaces of potential three-dimensional objects. After solving problems based on these orthographic views, subjects discriminated between isometric views of the same objects and drawings of distractor structures. Recognition of the isometrics, which had never been shown during the problem solving phase of the experiment, was excellent. In addition, recognition of isometrics corresponding to problems that had been solved correctly when presented in orthographic form was significantly superior to recognition of isometrics based on problems solved incorrectly. In Experiment 2, conditions were included in which either orthographic or isometric views functioned as problem solving or recognition displays. Only in the case of orthographic problem solving followed by isometric recognition (Experiment 1) was the superiority of recognition for correctly-solved problems over incorrectly-solved problems obtained. The pattern of results suggests that viewers construct mental representations embodying structural information about integrated, three-dimensional objects when asked to reason about flat, disconnected projections.

Depth Perception↗
PubMed1995

Interaction style, problem-solving behavior, and family problem-solving effectiveness.

We proposed that an individual's characteristic style of interaction will predict his or her problem-solving behavior and family problem-solving effectiveness. We test this hypothesis for mothers, fathers, and adolescent boys and girls (M age = 12.7 years) in 431 rural families using both warm and hostile interaction styles. One set of videotape coders observed a general family discussion and measured interaction style. A year later, another, independent set of coders observed a family problem-solving task. Family members reported family problem-solving effectiveness immediately following the problem-solving task. The results indicated that a hostile interaction style directly predicted destructive problem-solving behavior and indirectly predicted family problem-solving effectiveness. A warm interaction style related directly to constructive problem-solving behavior and indirectly to family problem-solving effectiveness.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Increase in reaction time for solving problems during learning-set formation.

Six rhesus monkeys were tested for a change in reaction time for problem-solving during a learning-set task, in which they showed progressive improvement in the rate of learning successive problems of visual discrimination. To evaluate the processing time for cognitive processes in problem-solving, the differences in release latency and movement time between the visual discrimination task and the visuomotor control task were defined. In their first experience, the monkeys required several hundreds of trials for solving the problem, and the Deltarelease latency was constant throughout the learning. With increasing experience, they solved problems within fewer trials than with the first problem. At this stage, the Deltarelease latency was high at the beginning and then decreased. The rise in the Deltarelease latency within the learning acquisition period increased depending on the amount of experience with problems they had solved, whereas the Deltamovement time within that period was not significantly affected by the experience with problems. The present findings suggest that the number of problem-solving experiences could promote profound cognitive processing, which may be related to a conceptual representation that actualizes the flexibility of learning, namely, the learning set.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Life events, depression, and perceived problem solving alternatives in adolescents.

The association between negative life events and depression may be mediated by adolescents' sense of competency in solving problems. This study investigated (a) the relationship between troublesome life events and level of depression and (b) the association between level of depression and adolescents' perceived problem solving alternatives, in 135 tenth graders. The specific life events of "unemployment of a family member", "starting at a new school", and "breaking up with a boy/girlfriend", were associated with higher levels of depression. In addition, higher levels of depression were associated most consistently with the perceived alternatives of getting intoxicated and of isolating oneself in response to a variety of problems. Further research is needed to clarify both the extent to which depression influences adolescents' responses to negative life events and leads to poorer problem solving choices, and the degree to which negative life events and the lack of constructive problem solving alternatives increase the risk of depression.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1996

Critical thinking and problem solving.

This article has discussed how critical thinkers solve problems. The ideas are intended to help pharmacists analyze problems and communicate recommendations. The ideas are intended to help pharmacists analyze their process for dealing with problems and to help with communication skills that facilitate information gathering and recommendations. The scientific method provides a framework for focused problem solving. Biases may adversely affect problem solving; critical thinkers work consciously to minimize them. Critical thinkers continually evaluate the quality of their information sources. Finally, critical thinkers practice effective communication skills. Each day, pharmacists make numerous decisions that have great impact on patient outcomes. These decisions must often be made with little warning and in a brief period of time. Providing pharmaceutical care demands that the critical-thinking process operate efficiently at all times. Just as sound clinical judgments depend on applying accepted principles of pharmacotherapy to individual patients, critical thinking must also be individualized. There is no single model for critical thinking. Many factors, including personality, environmental influence, and genetics, determine the critical-thinking process for a given individual. Critical thinking, however, is not an innate talent. It must be practiced and developed.

Bias↗
PubMed1987

An investigation into problem solving in education: a problem-solving curricular framework.

The purpose of this study was to examine how two aspects of teaching, mastery of content and problem solving, could be linked in a curricular framework. A professional educational program in physical therapy which had been developed to teach both content and problem solving was evaluated. The subjects for the study were 81 students in a baccalaureate program in a Midwestern medical school who participated in this problem-solving curriculum. The primary assessment instrument used was the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal. Findings indicated that performance on a test of critical thinking was affected by the curriculum. Regression analysis indicated that one course designed as an introduction to problem solving was significantly related to changes in problem-solving skill scores. Although significant change in the test scores did occur, these changes were not evident until the completion of the year-long program. Differing effects for lecture and field experience (or patient care) courses were not observed, and traditional measures such as grade point averages had no statistical relationship to problem-solving skill scores.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Acquiring an understanding of design: evidence from children's insight problem solving.

The human ability to make tools and use them to solve problems may not be zoologically unique, but it is certainly extraordinary. Yet little is known about the conceptual machinery that makes humans so competent at making and using tools. Do adults and children have concepts specialized for understanding human-made artifacts? If so, are these concepts deployed in attempts to solve novel problems? Here we present new data, derived from problem-solving experiments, which support the following. (i) The structure of the child's concept of artifact function changes profoundly between ages 5 and 7. At age 5, the child's conceptual machinery defines the function of an artifact as any goal a user might have; by age 7, its function is defined by the artifact's typical or intended use. (ii) This conceptual shift has a striking effect on problem-solving performance, i.e. the child's concept of artifact function appears to be deployed in problem solving. (iii) This effect on problem solving is not caused by differences in the amount of knowledge that children have about the typical use of a particular tool; it is mediated by the structure of the child's artifact concept (which organizes and deploys the child's knowledge). In two studies, children between 5 and 7 years of age were matched for their knowledge of what a particular artifact "is for", and then given a problem that can only be solved if that tool is used for an atypical purpose. All children performed well in a baseline condition. But when they were primed by a demonstration of the artifact's typical function, 5-year-old children solved the problem much faster than 6-7-year-old children. Because all children knew what the tools were for, differences in knowledge alone cannot explain the results. We argue that the older children were slower to solve the problem when the typical function was primed because (i) their artifact concept plays a role in problem solving, and (ii) intended purpose is central to their concept of artifact function, but not to that of the younger children.

Awareness↗
PubMed2000

Self-appraised social problem solving abilities, emotional reactions and actual problem solving performance.

Self-report measures of social problem solving abilities have yet to be associated with objective problem solving performance in any consistent manner. In the present study, we investigated the relation of social problem solving abilities--as measured by the Social Problem Solving Skills Inventory--Revised (SPSI-R [Maydeu-Olivares, A. & D'Zurilla, T. J. (1996). A factor analytic study of the Social Problem Solving Inventory: an integration of theory and data. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 20, 115-133])--to performance on a structured problem solving task. Unlike previous studies, we examined the relation of problem solving skills to performance curves observed in repeated trials, while controlling for affective reactions to each trial. Using hierarchical modeling techniques, a negative problem orientation was significantly predictive of performance and this effect was not mediated by negative affectivity. Results are discussed as they pertain to contemporary models of social problem solving.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Does social problem solving differ from other types of problem solving during the adult years?

One hundred thirteen individuals, ages 18-81, were presented with a test of social problem solving, a test of practical problem solving, the Twenty Questions task (a test of traditional problem solving), the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale--Revised Vocabulary subtest (a measure of crystallized intelligence), and Raven's Progressive Matrices (a measure of fluid intelligence). The effects of age, sex, education, and intellectual abilities on problem-solving performance were examined. Social problem solving was positively related to higher education and higher Vocabulary scores, but it was not related to age. Social problem solving and practical problem solving were significantly related to each other and to scores on the Vocabulary subtest, whereas traditional problem solving was significantly related to scores on Raven's Progressive Matrices. These results suggest that different types of problem solving are differentially related to other intellectual abilities and to age.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

Expertise as mental set: the effects of domain knowledge in creative problem solving.

Experts generally solve problems in their fields more effectively than novices because their well-structured, easily activated knowledge allows for efficient search of a solution space. But what happens when a problem requires a broad search for a solution? One concern is that subjects with a large amount of domain knowledge may actually be at a disadvantage, because their knowledge may confine them to an area of the search space in which the solution does not reside. In other words, domain knowledge may act as a mental set, promoting fixation in creative problem-solving attempts. A series of three experiments in which an adapted version of Mednick's (1962) remote associates task was used demonstrates conditions under which domain knowledge may inhibit creative problem solving.

Achievement↗
PubMed1989

Use of milieu as a problem-solving strategy in addiction treatment.

Addicted clients begin their recovery through detoxification and treatment in a structured inpatient unit. The focus of treatment is most appropriately on learning new, more constructive ways for solving problems. Everyday living skills can best be learned in a therapeutic milieu where interactions in the here-and-now are examined and opportunities are present for practicing problem-solving skills. A therapeutic milieu can be designed and initiated through efforts of the nursing staff and members of other disciplines. It is a group treatment approach emphasizing active participation in structured activities, decision-making by consensus involving all members of the community, and a reward and restriction system based on the appropriateness of client behaviors. Certain problem behaviors of addicted clients can be addressed through confrontation and group pressure; to be expected are problems with manipulation, avoidance, aggression, impulsiveness, and grandiose denial. Staff members who work in a therapeutic milieu approach to treatment of addicted clients share certain concerns. Strategies need to be developed for dealing with manipulative attempts at splitting the staff into opposing forces, clarifying roles, enforcing unit policies, and lessening feelings of hopelessness when clients fail to achieve sobriety. A cohesive staff who work at trusting each other in an atmosphere of open communication and equitable conflict resolution are best able to support each other while addressing common concerns. While treatment in a therapeutic milieu is an effective beginning in the process of recovery, it must be remembered that it is only a beginning in the long, slow process of rehabilitation. And during that process, there are likely to be relapses, which can be used as learning tools in the development of improved problem-solving skills.

Adult↗