[Mummies: the living dead. 1: squatting mummies--bundled mummies].
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Archaeology↗
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Paleo-images of mummy A4, the infant mummy, and other bodies from the Basilica of St. Francesco in Arezzo.
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History, 17th Century↗
The mummy from mummy cave: preliminary reports.
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History of Medicine↗
[Buddhist mummies in Japan].
The mummy of priest Kochi (preserved at Saishoji Temple, Teradomari, Niigata Pref.) has become famous, since it appeared in the book "Snow Country Tales" written by Bokushi Suzuki in 1841 (Fig. 1). In a country of high humidity, such as Japan, the belief that mummification could not, and did not, exist would not be altogether unfounded, but rather more a matter of common sense. There are two dozen Buddhist mummies in this country. It was not known until 1961 that a reliable source of artificial mummification has existed in Japan. The Japanese Buddhist mummies, apart from those of the Fujiwara family, a powerful clan of northeast Japan in the 12th century, dated mostly from the 17th to the 19th century as given in Table 1. Three principal types of mummification described by Vreeland, Jr. and Cockburn (1980) could be identified in the Japanese Buddhist mummies: type I, natural mummification; type II, intentional natural; and type III, artificial. Matsumoto (1990) classified the mummies into four groups, based on their ideological backgrounds: group A, mummies of the priests having faith in the Amitabha (the Supreme Buddha presiding over the Pure Land in the West); group B, sokushin-butsu mummies of the priests belonging to the Shingon sect of Japanese Buddhism founded by Kukai (Kobo-daishi); group C, nyujo mummies of the priests having faith in the Maitreya (the Buddha presiding over the Pure Land in the North, or the Buddha of the future); and group D, other mummies. These mummies of groups A, B, C and D are respectively listed in Table 2. Previous papers have shown that the mummies of the groups A, C and D belonged to the mummification of type I (natural mummification) or type II (intentional natural), whereas those of only the group B were of type III (artificial). The mummies of groups A to D were given as follows. a) Mummies of group A. The four mummies of the Fujiwara family in the Amitabha faith (preserved at Chusonji Temple, Hiraizumi, Iwate Pref.), which were laid in daisies for Buddhist images at golden Konjikido, a model of the Western Pure Land of Amitabha, did not bear any evidence of Ainu character in their physical traits. Of these, the mummy of Yasuhira Fujiwara, of which the head and neck were severely injured by swords, showed that it had been decapitated. This decapitated head had suffered mutilations: i.e. a long iron nail had been driven into the forehead, and the both auricles and the nose had been cut off.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
Buddhism↗
Head and skull base features of nine Egyptian mummies: evaluation with high-resolution CT and reformation techniques.
OBJECTIVE: CT is an indispensable imaging tool in the evaluation of Egyptian mummies because it can noninvasively generate large amounts of data. We applied current CT imaging and postprocessing techniques to methodically survey the head and skull base features of nine Egyptian mummies in the hope of providing paleopathologic and radiologic information. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Nine Egyptian mummies were evaluated on helical CT using 1-mm axial scans obtained from the skull vertex to the mid cervical spine. Systematic evaluation of the skull and intracranial contents, paranasal sinuses, craniocervical junction, orbits, temporal bones including the middle and inner ears, teeth, and superficial soft tissues was undertaken. Reformatted and volume-rendered images were generated. RESULTS: CT findings indicated that the intracranial contents of the nine mummies varied tremendously. Destruction of the anterior skull base structures in mummies without intracranial contents suggested a transnasal, transethmoidal approach to excerebration. A large amount of expensive embalming material within the skull of one mummy suggests that he may have been a royal pharoah. A cleft palate deformity was identified in a child mummy. Temporal bone analysis revealed one case of asymmetric mastoid air cell erosion and dehiscence, which is strongly suggestive of prior mastoiditis. Craniocervical junction abnormalities and ossicular chain disruption in several mummies were attributed to postmortem damage. The orbital structures had intentionally been removed in several mummies. Dental disease was ubiquitous among the adult specimens. CONCLUSION. The systematic evaluation of the head and skull base of mummies with CT can provide insight into the life, disease, death, and postmortem treatment of these ancient Egyptians.
Adolescent↗
Sex determination by polymerase chain reaction on mummies discovered at Taklamakan desert in 1912.
Sex determination was performed by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) on eight adult mummies and one child mummy which were discovered at Taklamakan desert in 1912 and now belong to the Lüshun Museum in China. Archaeologically, these mummies were humans living in the seventh century, that is, more than 1300 years ago. Putative sex determination was performed based on external morphology for six of the eight adults, but it was impossible for the other two adults and one child mummy due to marked destruction on the external morphology. Hair, muscle and skin samples were then collected from each adult mummy, and skin and rib samples from the child mummy. Forty PCR cycles were performed as follows: denaturation at 94 degrees C for 40 s, annealing at 55 degrees C for 30 s and extension at 72 degrees C for 1 min. The primer and PCR reaction mixture were prepared according to the report by Witt and Erickson (M. Witt and R. P. Erikson, A rapid method for detection of Y-chromosomal DNA from dried blood specimens by the polymerase chain reaction. Hum. Genet., 82 (1989) 271-274)). Two different pairs of primer were used. One was X1, X2 (X1: 5'-AATCATCAAATGGAGATTTG-3'; X2: 5'-GTTCAGCTCTGTGAGTGAAA-3') to flanking the 170 bp fragment of the alphoid repeats on the human X chromosome, and the other was Y11, Y22 (Y11: 5'-ATGATAGAAACGGAAATATG-3'; Y22: 5'-AGTAGAATGCAAAGGGCTC-3') to flanking the 130 bp fragment of the alphoid repeats on the human Y chromosome. Extracted DNA solutions from mummy samples was purified using a spin column (T. Yoshii, K. Tamura, T. Taniguchi, K. Akiyama and I. Ishiyama, Water-soluble eumelanin as a PCR-inhibitor and a simple method for its removal. Jpn. J. Legal Med., 47 (1993) 323-329 (in Japanese with English abstract) for removing PCR-inhibitors, and bovine serum albumin (BSA) was employed to inhibit the remaining impurities even after the purification with the column. In six adult cases where the putative sex was determined from external morphology, the sex in five cases was consistent with that by PCR using hair, muscle, and skin samples, but the other one was inconsistent. In two adult cases where sex estimation was externally impossible, the sex was determined to be male because both X-specific and Y-specific bands were clearly detected. The child mummy was definitely male. This study shows that the sex determination was possible by the PCR method even with very ancient human samples > 1300 years old, that spin column was useful for removing impurities in the DNA solution from ancient human samples and that the BSA of optimum concentration suppressed the action of the PCR-inhibitory factors.
Adult↗
[Preservation of cutaneous structures of egyptian mummies. An ultrastructural study].
INTRODUCTION: The recent development of studies applied to ancient materials may be explained by the application of molecular biology techniques on the extracted ancient DNA mainly the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), the ultrasensitive DNA-amplification technique that hit the headlines in the late 1980s. PCR was used to amplify human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), genetic material in stored tissue specimens and to document people who died in 1976. In addition, recent discoveries of mummified bodies in ice of the Tyrolean Alps or Greenland allowed a new approach in archeological studies. Mummies are a good material for investigations of ancient tissues. The studies concern the techniques of embalming, tissue preservation and palepathological aspects. In cutaneous paleopathology, mummies from Egypt, South or North America and Europe were considered. Various skin lesions were characterized: histiocytoma, Chagas' disease, smallpox, syphilis. Recently drugs (cocaine, hashish and nicotine) were extracted from skin and head hair of Egyptian mummies. Only a few studies were concerned with the ultrastructure of the skin of such mummies. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We had the opportunity to obtain skin samples of two Egyptian mummies. One of them was embalmed between 150 BC-90 AC. The skin was studied by transmission electron microscopy. As the mummified materials had dried out and shrunk, it was necessary to rehydrate them for ultrastructural observation. Skin samples were fragmented into small pieces before fixation with 2 p. 100 glutaraldehyde in sodium cacodylate buffer for 10 days (allowing for removal of the materials used for embalming). The samples were then washed in the same buffer for 10 days. After washing the pieces were post-fixed with 1 p. 100 osmium tetroxyde, dehydrated and embedded in Epoxy medium. RESULTS: With this process, it was possible to observe the excellent preservation of the cutaneous structures. The epidermis was well preserved. It was possible to observe the different cell layers and mainly the upper layers. The nuclei and the desmosomes of keratinocytes were recognized. Intercellular spaces were narrow. Desmosomes showed dense thickenings of the cell membrane on both sides and an intercellular band with narrow lucent spaces adjacent to the dense cell membrane. The nuclei showed dense spots of chromatin and in the cytoplasm recognizable tonofilament bundles were identified. Langerhans cells and melanocytes were not observed. In the dermis, the collagen fibrils formed thick bundles and showed the characteristic axial periodicity. Elastic fibers were also recognized showing two main components: the amorphous substance and the fibrils. Throughout the dermis, a number of round or oval structures were found. They had the typical appearance of spores of bacteria. In the centre, they had an electron dense and granular core surrounded by an inner membrane and a spore coat. DISCUSSION: Only a few investigations were performed on the ultrastructure of the skin of the Egyptian mummies. In the majority of cases, the epidermis was not preserved. The present work demonstrates the good preservation of epidermal structures and specially desmosomes and intercellular connections. The presence of spores of bacteria was previously reported. These spores enter a highly resistant resting phase in order to survive in a dormant state for a long period of starvation or other adverse environmental conditions. Similar investigations were performed on skin obtained from Eskimo mummies preserved by the extremely cold and dry polar weather. In these conditions, the authors reported the observation of melanocytes, vessels and nerves. Additionally, biochemical investigations demonstrated the very good preservation of collagen and glycosaminoglycans of the dermal extracellular matrix.
Collagen↗
Studies of organic residues from ancient Egyptian mummies using high temperature-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and sequential thermal desorption-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.
The techniques of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and sequential thermal desorption-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (TD-GC-MS) and pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS) have been utilised to characterise the constituents of tissue-derived or applied organic material from two Pharaonic Egyptian mummies with a view to identifying embalming practices/substances. The results obtained using TD-GC-MS revealed a series of monocarboxylic acids with the C16:0, C18:1 and C18:0 components dominating in both mummies. The thermal desorption products related to cholesterol, i.e., cholesta-3,5,7-triene and cholesta-3,5-diene (only in Khnum Nakht), were detected in both mummies. Khnum Nakht also contained a number of straight chain alkyl amides (C16-C18) and an alkyl nitrile (C18). Other products included the 2,5-diketopiperazine derivative (DKP) of proline-glycine (pro-gly) which was a major component (7.9%) in Khnum Nakht but only a very minor component in Horemkenesi. Py-GC-MS of samples of both specimens yielded a series of alkene/alkane doublets (Horemkenesi C6-C18, Khnum Nakht C6-C24) which dominated their chromatograms. Series of methyl ketones in the C9-C19 chain length range were also present, with C5-C7 cyclic ketones occurring in Horemkenesi only. These ketones are indicative of covalent bond cleavage, probably of polymerised acyl lipids. Nitrogenous products included nitriles (C9-C18) which were significant in both samples, and amides which were only detected in Khnum Nakht. Also present amongst the pyrolysis products were three steroidal hydrocarbons, cholest-(?)-ene, cholesta-3,5,7-triene and cholesta-3,5-diene. High temperature-GC-MS of trimethylsilylated lipid extracts yielded similar monocarboxylic acids to that obtained using TD-GC-MS, while a series of alpha, omega-dicarboxylic acids and a number of mono- and di-hydroxy carboxylic acids not seen in the thermal desorption or pyrolysis GC-MS analyses were significant constituents in both mummy samples. Overall, the use of GC-MS and sequential TD-GC-MS and Py-GC-MS has demonstrated in both mummies the presence of a complex suite of lipids and proteinaceous components whose compositions indicates extensive alteration via oxidative and hydrolytic processes during long-term interment. None of the classical embalming resins was detected but an exogenous origin for at least a proportion of these components cannot be discounted since fats, oils and gelatin have been proposed as embalming agents in mummification. The combined approach of sequential TD- and Py-GC-MS has potential for application to the characterisation of embalming materials in mummies. Most importantly these techniques virtually eliminate any destruction of the mummified bodies thereby allowing the scope of investigations of ancient Egyptian funerary practices to be significantly extended.
Embalming↗
Diagnosing ancient diphyllobothriasis from Chinchorro mummies.
Diphyllobothrium pacificum has been reported as a human parasite from coprolites and skeletons in Peru and Chile. Our analysis of Chinchorro mummies from Chile provides the oldest evidence of D. pacificum directly associated with human mummies. These mummies date between 4,000 and 5,000 years ago. The basis for our diagnosis is presented. We find that the size of the eggs in the mummies is smaller than other discoveries of D. pacificum. We suggest that this is due to the peculiar circumstances of preservation of parasite eggs within mummies and the release of immature eggs into the intestinal tract as the tapeworms decompose after the death of the host. This information is important to consider when making diagnoses from mummies.
Animals↗
Radiologic evaluation of the Llullaillaco mummies.
OBJECTIVE: Our purpose was to determine the imaging findings in three 500-year-old frozen mummies of sacrificial Inca children. MATERIALS AND METHODS: CT, conventional radiography, and dental radiography of Inca mummies were reviewed. Different techniques, which were adjusted to the anatomic position of the bodies, were used for radiologic analyses. Working sessions were limited to 20 min because of the fragility of these mummies and to prevent thawing of the specimens. RESULTS: Internal organs in good condition with a natural shrinkage caused by dehydration were shown on CT scans. Both white and gray matter were clearly observed in the brain and cerebellum. The white matter and the fatty tissue of the bodies were visibly white. This condition was possibly caused by the transformation of the fatty tissue into a waxlike substance and the deposition of calcium salts. The lungs were expanded in all three mummies. The ages of the three children at the time of their deaths were estimated by means of radiographs of the teeth and long bones. Bone mineralization, the muscular volume, and the thickness of the adipose panniculus indicated the good nutritional state of the three Inca children. The spleen was not visualized in any case. CONCLUSION: Radiology helped us determine the state of the internal organs, the nutritional conditions, and the physical abnormalities of the naturally mummified children. These mummies can be considered among the best preserved mummies currently known.
Adolescent↗
Paleoradiology: advanced CT in the evaluation of nine Egyptian mummies.
Axial thin-collimation state-of-the-art spiral computed tomography (CT) was combined with sagittal and coronal reformatting, three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction, and virtual "fly-through" techniques to nondestructively study nine Egyptian mummies. These techniques provided important paleopathologic and historical information about mummification techniques, depicted anatomy in the most informative imaging plane, illustrated the soft-tissue preservation and physical appearance of mummies in superb detail, and generated an intriguing virtual tour through hollow mummified remains without harming the specimens themselves. Images generated with these methods can help archaeologists and Egyptologists understand these fascinating members of mankind and can serve as adjunct visual aids for laypersons who are interested in mummies. CT has emerged as the imaging modality of choice for the examination of Egyptian mummies due to its noninvasive cross-sectional nature and inherently superior contrast and spatial resolution. As multi-detector row CT and postprocessing tools evolve, the capabilities and applications of CT will continue to proliferate, attesting to the expanded versatility and utility of CT as a noninvasive research tool in the multidisciplinary study of Egyptian mummies.
History, Ancient↗
Fatty acid composition and preservation of the Tyrolean Iceman and other mummies.
In anthropology, objective parameters to adequately describe storage conditions and the preservation of mummies have yet to be identified. Considering that fatty acids degrade to stable products, we analysed their profile in human mummies and in control samples by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Originating from different epochs and civilizations, samples of the Tyrolean Iceman, other glacier corpses, a freeze dried mummy, corpses from a permafrost region, a corpse mummified immersed in water, and a desert mummy were evaluated. Chemometric analysis based on the concentrations of 16 fatty acids revealed the degree of similarity between anthropologic and fresh corpse samples, which was mainly influenced by the content of palmitic acid, oleic acid, and 10-hydroxystearic acid. The presence of 10-hydroxystearic acid was associated with immersion in water, whereas dry mummification was accompanied by high contents of oleic acid. Samples of the Tyrolean Iceman clustered between fresh tissue and those of other glacier corpses indicating the good preservation of this mummy. Thus, environmental post-mortem conditions were associated with characteristic fatty acid patterns suggesting that chemometric analysis of fatty acid contents may add to our knowledge about post-mortem storage conditions and the preservation of human corpses.
Fatty Acids↗
A possible histiocytoma in an Egyptian mummy.
This report concerns the finding of a possible histiocytoma in the skin of the heel of an Egyptian mummy. Only two other neoplasms have been diagnosed microscopically in ancient material-a squamous papilloma of the hand in an Egyptian mummy and possible malignant melanomas in several Peruvian mummies. No visceral tumors have ever been identified in mummies, and only a few possible neoplasms have been detected on gross examination of skeletal material. The satisfactory preservation of cutaneous histologic and pathologic features in mummies should encourage the performance of additional studies.
Egypt, Ancient↗
[Radiologic and skeletal-anatomical study of mummies at the Tourin Egyptian Museum].
The authors present a study performed on three Egyptian mummies, coming from the same inviolate grave belonging to the Necropolis of Gebelin. The grave bore no indications on the occupiers' identity and for that reason Schiaparelli identified it as "Tomb of the Unknown". The mummies and their funerary furniture are now exposed at the Egyptian Museum of Turin. Standard radiographies of the mummies have been taken in situ by means of a portable radiological equipment. It has also been possible to examine directly the anatomic aspect of one unbandaged skeletal mummy. The procedure was simple, reliable, not expensive and did not expose the mummies to damages due to an eventual transfer. Reliable data on the findings have been taken in that way: the three burials, one of them is likely a reburial, belong to three grown-up subjects, whose sex was male for two and probably female for the third. No bone pathology has been found. One of the cadavers seems to be dead due to a serious cranic injury, probably the effect of a heavy bladed weapon.
Adult↗
Sequence analysis of bacterial DNA in the colon of an Andean mummy.
We have isolated DNA from 14 tissue samples from the internal organs of an Andean human mummy (10th-11th century A.D.) and have checked the persistence of the original human and bacterial templates using the following main approaches: 1) amino acid racemization test; 2) quantification of mitochondrial DNA copy number; 3) survey of bacterial DNA in the different organs; 4) sequence analysis of bacterial amplicons of different lengths. The results demonstrate that both the original human DNA and the DNA of the bacteria of the mummy gut are preserved. In particular, sequence analysis of two (respectively 100 and 196 bp in length) libraries of bacterial 16s ribosomal RNA gene amplicons from the mummy colon shows that while the shortest amplicons give only modest and biased indications about the bacterial taxa, the longer amplicons allow the identification several species of the genus Clostridium which are typical of the human colon. This work represents a first example of a methodological approach which is applicable, in principle, to many other natural and artificial mummies and might open the way to the study of the structure of the human microbial ecosystem from prehistory to present.
Cloning, Molecular↗
ABO tissue antigens of Egyptian mummies.
ABO groups were investigated on skin (and muscle), bone and hair specimens from 14 Egyptian mummies dating from the Roman period. Samples were tested by the AE (absorption-elution), MA (mixed agglutination) and HIF (histo-immunofluorescence) methods, in order to evaluate the reliability of each method. For half of the mummies (7) the results were concordant on all samples (3-9 samples for each mummy) with all employed methods, suggesting an unequivocal blood group conclusion. For the other seven mummies there were discordant results with the different methods and interpretation of the results was thus inconclusive. HIF seems to be the most reliable method as specific blood group substances are identified on specific histologic structures. Failure to detect tissular ABO antigens was mainly due to excessive resin impregnation.
ABO Blood-Group System↗
Histological analysis on the medieval mummy in Korea.
Recently, there have been some reports on the mummies from the medieval tombs in Korea, which were not made on purpose. Although these mummies could be an invaluable source for the studies on the physical state of medieval Koreans, there were not any reports on this subject until now. In this study, we first tried to investigate the various tissues using light- and electron-microscopic techniques. In the organs we have examined, even though the collagen fibers were profusely found within all of them, some types of cells, such as red blood cells, chondrocytes, hepatocyte and muscle cells, were also visible in various tissues. The histological characteristics of the current case seemed to be well matched with the previous study in general even though there were also somewhat different findings from the previous reports on the mummies. Although the cause of the mummification in Korea was not completely explained, we think that the cause in this case could be correlated with cultural aspects--not with natural conditions--because the mummies were only found in cases where the lime-soil barrier was maintained until their discovery, and which separated the inner space of the coffins from the outer space. As similar cases are frequently reported nowadays, invaluable data on the physical status of the medieval Koreans could be attainable if systemic investigation could be performed on similar cases which are found in the future.
Bayes Theorem↗
Radiological analysis on a mummy from a medieval tomb in Korea.
Although naturally mummified corpses have frequently been found in medieval tombs of Korea, there have been no scientific reports on the physical status of the mummies. In this study, we first tried to investigate the mummy using radiological methods. On physical examination, there were no findings suggestive of the cause of the death. From the radiological studies, we found that some internal organs were well preserved, while the bones showed similar appearances to those of living cases. From the stage of development of the teeth and carpal bones, the age of the mummy was estimated to be 4.5 to 6.6 years old. Although the exact cause of the mummification could not be clearly elucidated, it may be due to the lime-soil mixture outside the outer coffin, completely sealing the inner coffin from the outer spaces. In this study, as the mummy in the medieval tomb has proved to be well preserved over the last 400 years, similar cases could give invaluable clues to the physical status of medieval Koreans.
Age Determination by Skeleton↗