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At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed1987

Traditional morality, moral reasoning and the moral education of adolescents.

While many groups agree that there is a need for schools to give some value training, particularly to adolescents, there is much disagreement as to how this should be done. Two positions on value training seem to be most prevalent today. One has often been identified with Kohlberg--teaching moral reasoning. The other position, supported by most conservative groups in this country today, calls for the teaching of traditional values. Proponents of these two positions have strongly criticized each other's methods and philosophies. This paper examines both positions and attempts to establish a significant common ground. In doing so, it is hoped that educators will be encouraged to incorporate elements of both ideas in the moral education process.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1999

Moral guidance, moral philosophy, and moral issues in practice.

Approaches to teaching ethics to nurses have been debated in literature for some years. Three issues in particular are commonly addressed: the intentions of such teaching; the value of examples and case studies; and the compatibility of philosophical approaches with the clinical reality experienced by students. It is argued here that moral guidance as a strategy is unacceptable, and that a basic introduction to philosophical methods is the key to effective learning of the skills required for autonomous analysis and decision making. A means for including the use of personal experiences and case study material is presented which relies upon the provision of a framework of analysis to facilitate structured thinking and the pursuit of justifiable arguments. The approach suggested is compatible with students' existing experiences and work-context, and enhances the integration of ethical reasoning into the multi-faceted totality of clinical practice.

Clinical Competence↗
PubMed1987

Medical ethics, moral philosophy and moral tradition.

Medical ethics is commonly assumed to be a form of 'applied moral philosophy' in which practical moral judgments are deduced from moral theories. This account of the relationship between moral theory and moral judgment is inadequate in several reports. The deductivist approach often results in inadequate attention being given to social, historical and developmental contexts. It also fails to explain some common phenomena in practical moral reasoning. In contrast to the emphasis in deductivism, a case-centered or casuistic practical ethics insists on immersion in the particularities of cases and on interpretation of details in light of moral maxims and other mid-level forms of moral reasoning. Two features of casuistics that ought to be distinguished but frequently are not, are: (1) the emphasis on immersion and interpretation, and (2) a claim about the relation between moral judgment and moral theory as sources of moral knowledge. Once we consider case-centered moral judgments as sources of moral knowledge, we must also begin to look critically but open-mindedly to moral traditions which, upon examination, appear to be more dynamic and to have more reformist potential than is commonly assumed.

Cultural Diversity↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Moral reasoning and moral behavior among selected groups of practicing nurses.

This study examined the relationship between moral reasoning and moral behavior in 79 practicing nurses. Moral reasoning was measured by Rest's Defining Issues Test. Judgments about Nursing Decisions (JAND), developed by the investigator, was used to measure moral behavior. JAND is compromised of seven stories, each depicting a nurse in an ethical dilemma, with a total of 48 items. It measures two components of moral behavior: knowledge and valuation of ideal moral behavior and perception of realistic moral behavior. The hypothesis that moral reasoning would be positively related to knowledge and valuation of ideal moral behavior was tested by Pearson product moment correlation; the obtained coefficient of .28 was significant at the .01 level. The hypothesis that moral reasoning would be positively related to nurses' perception of realistic moral behavior was also tested by Pearson product moment correlation; the obtained coefficient of .19 was significant at the .05 level. Additional analyses showed significant differences in the knowledge and valuation component of JAND between educational groups, ethnic groups, age groups, and years of practice in nursing; but, there were no differences between these groups with respect to the perception of realist moral behavior component of JAND. Implications of the findings for nursing practice, education, and research are discussed.

Decision Making↗
PubMed2001

A cybernetic theory of morality and moral autonomy.

Human morality may be thought of as a negative feedback control system in which moral rules are reference values, and moral disapproval, blame, and punishment are forms of negative feedback given for violations of the moral rules. In such a system, if moral agents held each other accountable, moral norms would be enforced effectively. However, even a properly functioning social negative feedback system could not explain acts in which individual agents uphold moral rules in the face of contrary social pressure. Dr. Frances Kelsey, who withheld FDA approval for thalidomide against intense social pressure, is an example of the degree of individual moral autonomy possible in a hostile environment. Such extreme moral autonomy is possible only if there is internal, psychological negative feedback, in addition to external, social feedback. Such a cybernetic model of morality and moral autonomy is consistent with certain aspects of classical ethical theories.

Cybernetics↗
PubMed1990

The measurement of principled morality by the Kohlberg Moral Dilemma Questionnaire.

The four stages preceding the postconventional level in the Kohlberg (1958, 1971, 1976) system of moral development are described as involving moral judgments that conform to external conditions of punishment, reward, social expectation, and conformity to the law. No special level of self-control seems necessary to behave in keeping with these conditions of external reinforcement. In contrast, the two stages of postconventional (principled) mortality involve defiance of majority opinion and defiance of the law--actions that would seem to require greater self-control. This study was concerned with whether postconventional moral reasoning, as measured by the Kohlberg Moral Dilemma Questionnaire (MDQ), can be associated with higher self-control. If so, prediction of principled moral behavior from the MDQ would be based not only on postconventional moral reasoning but bolstered by the necessary level of self-control as well. College students who came the closest to postconventional moral reasoning showed better self-control than college students who were more conventional or preconventional in their moral judgments. These results support the validity of the MDQ for predicting principled moral behavior.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1985

Individual differences in moral development: the relation of sex, gender, and personality to morality.

Individual differences in moral development are examined, with a particular emphasis on sex and gender differences. This examination includes an extensive review of the empirical and theoretical literature in psychology on morality. Based on this review, it is concluded that sex differences occur with less frequency and with a less systematic favoring of males than is predicted by several theories of moral development. In addition, a study is presented which considers the relation of sex, gender, and personality to morality. Two age cohort samples, college sophomores (n = 169) and adults (n = 151), were assessed with the moral judgment scale of the cognitive-developmental model (Kohlberg, 1984) and a newly developed moral character template of the personological model (Lifton, in press). Participants also completed the CPI and MMPI personality inventories. Results of the study indicate (1) the absence of sex differences for either model, (2) the presence of gender differences favoring masculine persons for the cognitive-developmental but not personological model, and (3) that individual differences in moral development parallel individual differences in personality development. The implications of these findings are discussed with regard to Gilligan's (1982) claim that men and women differ in their moral orientations. Finally, it is argued that an individual difference approach, particularly one that emphasizes personality, would prove useful for future research on moral development.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Morality is not a curable disease: probing the history of venereal diseases, morality and prostitution. [Review of: Spongberg, M. Feminizing venereal disease: the body of the prostitute in nineteenth-century discourse, 1997; Fisher, T. Prostitution and the Victorians, 1997; Mooij, A. Out of otherness: characters and narrators in the Dutch venereal disease debates 1850-1990, 1998; Merians, LE. The secret malady: venereal disease in eighteenth century Britain and France, 1996; Brandt, A; Rozin P. Morality and health, 1997; Lewis, M. Thorns on the rose: the history of sexually transmitted diseases in Australia in international perspective, 1998; Lundberg, A. Care and coercion: medical knowledge, social policy and patients with venereal disease in Sweden, 1999].

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Historiography↗
PubMed2001

Moral agency, moral worth and the question of double standards in medical research in developing countries.

International regulations governing medical research, healthcare and medical practice, are, obviously, meant to be guidelines and not detailed procedural rules of thumb that can be applied unreflectively without any danger of doing moral wrong. Moreover, such regulations are meant to apply internationally, and no set of straight-jacketed rules of thumb can conceivably apply to all societies and communities of the world, extremely diverse and differently situated as they are. The mark of a good international guideline or regulation, in my view, is that it should provide a clear principle of action that applies equally to all global communities and societies without seeking to foist the particular or momentary moral dilemmas, quandaries, obsessions and preoccupations of some on all. In this paper, I propose to argue that, because moral obligations are obligations only from the point of view of a particular moral agent, we should avoid making the peculiar problems of any particular moral agent(s) the obsessive concern of all moral agents, and that we need, in particular, to make appropriate distinctions between the ethics of developed world research in the developing world, collaborative or cooperative research between the developed and developing worlds, developed world research in the developed world and developing world research in the developing world. A consequence of looking at things this way is that, while it should be clear that there are ethical concerns, imperatives and obligations at all levels, different standards may and, in fact, cannot but be applied in different contexts at different levels, without resorting to the use of double standards, which can never be morally justified. Finally, I venture to propose a formula for a solemn pledge of moral integrity and noble intent, from the perspective of the agent, that is to say, the investigator, sponsor and funder of any research, to complement and balance the widely accepted informed consent requirement, from the perspective of the patient, the subject of any biomedical research.

Biomedical Research↗
PubMed1977

Moral therapy and the problem of morale.

The author reviews the history of moral therapy and the lessons and warnings it holds for modern psychiatry. Custodial management replaced moral therapy in this country in the late 1800s because of inadequate manpower and fiscal resources, a lack of charismatic leaders, the increasing lack of control over admissions and discharge, and other factors. One "solution" to the unacceptable conditions of custodial care was an increased faith in science and technology; humanistic medical science became scientism, and patients suffered. Morale is essential to the provision of moral therapy, and the increasing emphasis on somatic therapies has strained the union of morale and moral treatment. The author believes that the profession can reaffirm its identity and distinguish itself through the appropriate provision of humane, psychosocial care--the essence of moral therapy.

Attitude of Health Personnel↗
PubMed1999

The relationship between moral decision making and patterns of consolidation and transition in moral judgment development.

Following models that describe intraindividual correlates of stage transitions (S. S. Snyder & D. H. Feldman, 1984), this study assessed the relation between a measure of consolidation and transition in moral judgment development and the utility of moral concepts in sociomoral decision making. The study extends previous research in suggesting that individuals use moral concepts differently as they cycle through periods of consolidation and transition. With multiple cross-sectional and longitudinal samples, findings indicate that participants' reliance on a Kohlbergian moral framework as measured by the Defining Issues Test is highest during periods of consolidation and lowest during transitions. As participants move into periods of consolidation, the utility of moral stage information increases. Thus, this study indicates that the consolidation and transition model can be used to help identify individuals who are more or less likely to use Kohlberg's moral stages in their moral decision making.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1993

Coping, defending, and the relations between moral judgment and moral behavior in prostitutes and other female juvenile delinquents.

Twenty female juvenile delinquents who acknowledged engaging in prostitution, 20 juvenile delinquents who denied doing so, and 20 same-age control subjects responded to Colby and Kohlberg's (1987) Moral Judgment Interview (MJI), a moral dilemma about prostitution, and Joffe and Naditch's (1977) test of coping and defending. Delinquents scored lower on moral maturity and coping and higher on defensiveness than nondelinquents. Post hoc analyses revealed that low-coping delinquents (but not high-coping delinquents or control subjects) made significantly lower level moral judgments on the prostitution dilemma than on the less personally relevant MJI dilemmas. Groups did not differ in their prescriptive judgments on the MJI, but prostitutes made weaker judgments against prostitution than the other delinquents. Prescriptive judgments were not related to moral maturity. The results elucidate the relation between moral judgment and moral behavior.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1999

Moral hypocrisy: appearing moral to oneself without being so.

How can people appear moral to themselves when they fail to act morally? Two self-deception strategies were considered: (a) misperceive one's behavior as moral and (b) avoid comparing one's behavior with moral standards. In Studies 1 and 2 the authors documented the importance of the 2nd strategy but not the 1st. Among participants who flipped a coin to assign themselves and another participant "fairly" to tasks, even a clearly labeled coin that prevented misperception did not produce a fair result (Study 1). Inducing behavior-standard comparison through self-awareness did (Study 2). Study 3 qualified the self-awareness effect: When moral standards were not salient before acting, self-awareness no longer increased alignment of behavior with standards. Instead, it increased alignment of standards with behavior and produced less moral action. Overall, results showed 3 different faces of moral hypocrisy.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Defense mechanisms and morality: a link between isolation and moralization.

The relationship between morality and perceptual defense mechanisms was studied. Three new scales were constructed to measure different aspects of morality: moralism (the tendency to evaluate everything in terms of right and wrong), conscience (strength of feelings of right and wrong) and reparation (inclination to repair the damage one has caused). Perceptual defense mechanisms were measured with Kragh's Defense Mechanism Test (DMT). Three hypotheses about relationships between morality and defense mechanisms, derived from psychoanalytical literature, were tested on 54 male University students. Results show positive correlations between the defense mechanism isolation of affect and moralism, and between identification with the aggressor and reparation. Total amount of perceptual defense correlated positively with moralism. It is argued that the psychological study of morality should take unconscious processes into consideration.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

The neural correlates of moral sensitivity: a functional magnetic resonance imaging investigation of basic and moral emotions.

Humans are endowed with a natural sense of fairness that permeates social perceptions and interactions. This moral stance is so ubiquitous that we may not notice it as a fundamental component of daily decision making and in the workings of many legal, political, and social systems. Emotion plays a pivotal role in moral experience by assigning human values to events, objects, and actions. Although the brain correlates of basic emotions have been explored, the neural organization of "moral emotions" in the human brain remains poorly understood. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging and a passive visual task, we show that both basic and moral emotions activate the amygdala, thalamus, and upper midbrain. The orbital and medial prefrontal cortex and the superior temporal sulcus are also recruited by viewing scenes evocative of moral emotions. Our results indicate that the orbital and medial sectors of the prefrontal cortex and the superior temporal sulcus region, which are critical regions for social behavior and perception, play a central role in moral appraisals. We suggest that the automatic tagging of ordinary social events with moral values may be an important mechanism for implicit social behaviors in humans.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Moral identity and the expanding circle of moral regard toward out-groups.

This article examines moral identity and reactions to out-groups during intergroup conflict Four studies suggest that a highly self-important moral identity is associated with an expansive circle of moral regard toward out-group members (Study 1) and more favorable attitudes toward relief efforts to aid out-group members (Study 2). Study 3 examines moral identity and national identity influences on the provision of financial assistance to out-groups. Study 4 investigates the relationship between moral identity and (a) the willingness to harm innocent out-group members not involved in the conflict and (b) moral judgments of revenge and forgiveness toward out-group members directly responsible for transgressions against the in-group. Results are discussed in terms of self-regulatory mechanisms that mitigate in-group favoritism and out-group hostility.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

The moral universe of injecting drug users in the era of AIDS: sharing injecting equipment and the protection of moral standing.

Recent work on HIV counselling suggests that the protection of the moral status of the recipient is a key factor in the successful uptake of advice. This study suggests it may be equally important in the uptake of health promotion messages. A discourse analysis of the talk of 20 young injecting drug users (IDUs) identified a contradiction between their asserted self-identity as careful and socially responsible injectors, and their admission of risky lending and borrowing of injecting equipment. This contradiction was resolved by the production of discourses of exoneration, differentially tailored to the moral implications of lending and of borrowing. Lenders argued a form of 'market morality' wherein it was the duty of each to accept the consequences of his/her decisions. Lenders were therefore morally exonerated since moral failure was the 'borrowers'. Borrowing was usually depicted as 'desperate measures' for which moral culpability was disavowed because of 'powerlessness'. The exception of routine borrowing, acknowledged as risky and against community norms, was accounted for in a nihilistic discourse of indifference to infection and death. The need for a 'counter discourse' around notions of community is discussed.

Adolescent↗