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Assessment of bovine hoof conformation and its association with lameness, animal factors and management practices on small-scale dairy farms in Kiambu district, Kenya.
Digital health and conformation were assessed in 216 dairy cattle on 78 randomly selected small-scale farms. For each cow, gait was assessed and the digits examined in detail. Hoof measurements (angle and length of the dorsal hoof wall, heel depth and hoof-base area) were also made. Hoof measurements varied most between individual cattle. Dorsal angle was correlated with heel depth (r = 0.53; P = 0.001) and dorsal length (r = -0.40; P = 0.001). The hoof-base area was correlated with the dorsal length (r = 0.41; P = 0.001). There were significant breed differences in dorsal angle (P = 0.03) and dorsal length (P < 0.01). The dorsal angle was correlated with parity and body condition, while the dorsal length, heel depth and the hoof-base area were correlated with the heart girth (P < 0.01). Hoof conformation was associated with both clinical lameness and hoof lesions. A 1-cm increase in the dorsal length increased the odds of lameness by 16.9, heel erosion by 1.8, underrunning by 5.4 and overgrowth by 40 (P < 0.01).
The role of Hyalomma ticks in foot infestations and temporary lameness of sheep in a semi-arid region of South Africa.
An outbreak of lameness amongst Merino lambs, associated with the presence of Hyalomma ticks, was investigated on a farm in the south-western Free State, South Africa. The purpose was to follow the progress of the condition and to determine the extent of involvement of the two Hyalomma species which occur in the region. The flock of experimental sheep (n = 460) ranged free in natural veld under extensive farming conditions. During September and October 1993, adult ewes and lambs in this flock were examined at weekly intervals to determine tick identity, abundance and attachment-site preferences on lame and unaffected animals. Lameness occurred only among lambs, of which 68 were affected during the 8-week period. Hyalomma ticks tended to aggregate and mean numbers of ticks/aggregation were significantly higher on lame lambs (mean = 11.3) than on either the unaffected lambs (mean = 6.9) or the ewes (mean = 7.1). Most tick aggregations (72.4%) on the lame lambs occurred on the lower legs and feet, 34 out of 55 of these on the fetlocks or interdigital clefts. Hyalomma truncatum dominated (> 97%) on all animals examined. Only 15.8% of the Hyalomma marginatum rufipes recovered from the lame animals were attached to the legs. At two other localities at which H. marginatum rufipes was more abundant, or even dominant, few ticks attached to the lower legs or feet. Those that did were mostly H. truncatum (> 90%). Both H. marginatum rufipes and H. truncatum may attach to the same ventral and anogenital body regions, but H. truncatum has a tendency to attach also to the feet and lower legs. Although attachment of one or a few ticks in the axillar region or upper legs may cause lameness in sheep, the attachment of ticks to the interdigital clefts and fetlocks almost always causes lameness. The latter condition is more likely to occur in regions where H. truncatum dominates.
[Leg disorders in swine: clinical changes attributable to the type of flooring].
Clinical symptoms of leg weakness were assessed in three groups of pigs, consisting of sixty-four, thirty-two and thirty-two animals respectively at four-week intervals during the fattening period. The animals of the various groups were housed in pens (eight pigs in each pen) with one of three types of flooring, viz. a concrete slatted floor, a floor of recycled plastic slats, or a perforated floor of polyurethane. The pigs housed on concrete slatted floors showed less severe clinical symptoms of leg weakness compared to the animals housed on floors of recycled plastic slats. The third group of pigs, those on the perforated floor of polyurethane, showed symptoms of internediate severity. The claws of the pigs in the most severely affected group were significantly longer than those of the pigs in the two other groups. Moreover, the distal parts of the limbs of these animals were much weaker, and the proportion of lame animals in this group was larger compared with that of the two other groups.
[Mycoplasma bovis arthritis in a herd of dairy cattle].
Cases of severe arthritis due to M. bovis in a herd of dairy cattle are reported. M. bovis was also isolated from the mammary tissues and lungs of one of the lame animals at autopsy; this animal did not show any symptoms of respiratory disease or mastitis. M. bovis was detected in milk samples of eight animals in which mastitis was present or absent, though not in any of the animals affected with arthritis. Antibiotic therapy failed to produce permanent results in the lame animals. Ultimately, spontaneous recovery occurred in these cases. M. bovis was no longer isolated following the short period during which lameness was present.
Association between subjective lameness grade and kinetic gait parameters in horses with experimentally induced forelimb lameness.
OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the association between subjective lameness grades and kinetic gait parameters and assess the variability in kinetic parameters in horses with experimentally induced forelimb lameness. ANIMALS: 32 horses. PROCEDURES: Forelimb lameness was induced in each horse via injection of lipopolysaccharide into 1 metacarpophalangeal joint (40 experimental trials). Subjective lameness grading and 13 kinetic gait parameters (force plate analysis) were assessed before (baseline) and at 12, 18, and 24 hours after lipopolysaccharide injection. While horses were trotting, kinetic gait analysis was performed for 8 valid repetitions at each time point. Repeated-measures analyses were performed with 8 repetitions for each kinetic parameter as the outcome, and lameness grades, time points after lipopolysaccharide injection, and repetition order as explanatory variables. Sensitivity and specificity of kinetic parameters for classification of horses as sound or lame (in relation to subjective lameness scores) were calculated. Between- and within-horse variabilities of the 13 kinetic parameters were assessed by calculation of coefficients of variation. RESULTS: Subjective lameness grades were significantly associated with most of the kinetic parameters. Vertical force peak and impulse had the lowest between- and within-horse coefficients of variation and the highest correlations with subjective lameness grade. Vertical force peak had the highest sensitivity and specificity for lameness classification. Vertical force peak and impulse were significantly decreased even in horses with mild or unobservable lameness. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Among the kinetic gait parameters, vertical force peak and impulse had the best potential to reflect lameness severity and identify subclinical forelimb gait abnormalities.
A study of 118 cases of navicular disease: radiological features.
Dorsoproximal-palmarodistal oblique, lateromedial and palmaroproximal-palmarodistal oblique radiographic projections were used with standard techniques to examine 118 horses with clinical signs of navicular disease. All radiological features which have previously been reported as significant changes in the navicular bones of horses with navicular disease were recorded. Comparisons were made between these features in lame limbs and sound limbs in unilaterally lame horses and most lame limbs and least lame limbs in bilateral but asymmetrically lame animals. Their relationship to the degree of lameness was also analysed. No relationships were identified between the characteristics of distal border synovial invaginations, flattening and/or thinning of the flexor cortex and limb distribution or severity of lameness. Defects in the flexor cortex, proximal border remodelling, medullary trabecular disruption and medullary sclerosis appeared to be related to limb affliction and severity of lameness while proximal border enthesophytes, and poor flexor corticomedullary demarcation presented evidence of a relationship to the grade of lameness. Poor flexor corticomedullary demarcation and fragmentation of the distal border were related to the severity of lameness in bilateral but asymmetrically affected horses. The presence of peri-articular osteophytes and mineralisation of the flexor digitorum profundus were too infrequently recognised to permit meaningful data evaluation.
Changes in limb loading with lameness for a number of Friesian cattle.
Lameness in cattle is an expensive problem. Gait studies may assist in understanding the factors involved. The gait changes of four lame cows were related to the gaits of non-lame cows. The vertical forces and horizontal fore-and-aft forces during the stance phase of steps were investigated using a force plate. The maximum vertical force (MVF) was often reduced on lame limbs. The horizontal forces showed an initial decelerative force followed by an accelerative force. For sound cows the maximum accelerative force (MAF) and the maximum decelerative force (MDF) were of the same order of magnitude, while those for lame animals were generally modified. Forces applied to the non-lame limbs of lame cows were also changed, probably to reduce further the loads exerted upon the lame foot.
Observations of abnormalities and age-related changes in the anconeal processes of swine.
Abnormalities and age-related changes in the anconeal processes of 60 boars were studied. Postmortem examination of both cubitus joints from 25 lame adolescent boars and from 5 of their nonlame contemporaries revealed cartilaginous tissue (termed cartilage plate) of varying size between the anconeal process and the ulnar diaphysis in 8 of the lame animals. The cartilage plate was fractured in both joints from 7 of these 8 animals, and joints from 6 animals with cartilage plate were associated with lesions of the semilunar articular cartilage and bone in the proximal portion of the ulna. Postmortem examination of the joints from 30 boars (ranging in age from 1 month before birth to 1.5 years) indicated that during growth, bone developed from the ulnar diaphysis toward the cranial tip of the anconeal process. Separate ossification centers were not observed in any of the clinically normal anconeal processes studied in this group. However, microscopic observations of 1 abnormal anconeal process from a 13-week-old boar indicated that trauma may be involved in morphogenesis of a cartilage plate. Age-dependent changes were also observed in the composition of the anconeal process.
An investigation into hindleg lameness in dairy cows.
A hind leg lameness of dairy cows was investigated in south-east Queensland. Samples of bone, blood, saliva, faeces, urine and milk were collected from lame and normal cows, some of which had received a phosphorus supplement of 30 g per day. Results of these investigations are presented and discussed. Clinical observations and pathological examinations indicated that the disease was an arthropathy affecting either the coxo-femoral or femoro-tibial joints. The disease was present in 30% of herds surveyed. Each owner reported 2 to 3 lame cows. The affected cows could not be differentiated from the normal cows on biochemical grounds. An hypothesis is advanced to explain the reported response of lame animals to large supplements of phosphorus. Information which indicates that previous nutritional status and methods of production cannot be ignored as predisposing factors is presented.
Detection of borreliacidal antibodies in dogs after challenge with Borrelia burgdorferi-infected ixodes scapularis ticks.
Detection of borreliacidal antibodies is an accurate serodiagnostic test for confirmation of Lyme disease in humans. In this study, 13 pathogen-free beagles, 12 to 26 weeks old, were infected with Borrelia burgdorferi by tick challenge. Dogs were monitored for clinical signs and symptoms of Lyme disease along with borreliacidal antibody production against B. burgdorferi sensu stricto isolates 297 and 50772. Ten (77%) dogs developed lameness in one or more legs within 210 days after attachment of Ixodes scapularis ticks. Eight (80%) of the lame animals had concurrent fever of > or =38 degrees C. Spirochetes were also recovered from the skin and joints of 12 (92%) dogs, but rarely from other organs. Borreliacidal antibodies against B. burgdorferi isolate 297 were detected in only four (31%) dogs, and the levels of killing antibodies remained low for the duration of the infection. In contrast, borreliacidal antibodies against B. burgdorferi isolate 50772 were detected in 13 (100%) dogs within 21 days of infection. Furthermore, the borreliacidal antibody levels correlated with the severity of B. burgdorferi infection. Detection of borreliacidal antibodies, especially against B. burgdorferi isolate 50772, is also a reliable serodiagnostic test for detection of Lyme disease in dogs.
Effects of pretreatment with ketoprofen and phenylbutazone on experimentally induced synovitis in horses.
OBJECTIVE: To compare the analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID), ketoprofen (2.20 and 3.63 mg/kg of body weight) and phenylbutazone (4.40 mg/kg), in an acute equine synovitis model. DESIGN: 4 groups of 6 horses received NSAID or saline solution in a randomized design. ANIMALS: 24 clinically normal mares and geldings. PROCEDURE: Left intercarpal joints were injected with sterile carrageenan to induce synovitis at the same time as IV administration of NSAID or saline solution. Clinical assessments were made and synovial fluid was withdrawn at 0, 1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 24, and 48 hours. RESULTS: The eicosanoids, prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and leukotriene B4, increased in synovial fluid after synovitis induction in all horses then returned to near baseline by 48 hours. All NSAID-treated horses had decreased PGE2, compared with saline-treated horses. This effect lasted longer in phenylbutazone-treated horses than in ketoprofen-treated horses. There were no treatment effects on leukotriene B4. In saline-treated animals, lameness, joint temperature, and synovial fluid volume, protein concentration, and nucleated cells increased 3 to 12 hours after induction, with marked reduction by 48 hours. Only phenylbutazone treatment reduced lameness, joint temperature, and synovial fluid volume. CONCLUSION: Phenylbutazone was more effective than ketoprofen in reducing lameness, joint temperature, synovial fluid volume, and synovial fluid PGE2. Results do not support lipoxygenase inhibition by either NSAID. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: This reversible model induced synovial fluid alterations similar to those observed in horses with septic arthritis. Results indicate that phenylbutazone may be more useful than ketoprofen in treating acute joint inflammation.
Healthy and happy: animal welfare as an integral part of sustainable agriculture.
Good animal welfare is necessary if an agricultural system is to be sustainable. Although we have been concerned about the welfare of our animals since we first domesticated them and became dependent on their health and reproduction, this article focuses mainly on the development of the animal welfare debate since the 1960s. It presents animal welfare as a science that arose from society's concern about the way animals are kept. These moral and ethical concerns lead to it having a value framework that must also be taken into consideration. Different definitions of animal welfare, as well as examples of research, are presented and discussed in the light of developments in this area. For example, in recent years there has been an increased interest among consumers for animal-friendly products, as there has been for environment friendly products, and this has stimulated the move from experimental studies of animal welfare to its application in practice and to monitoring animal welfare on farms. Traditionally such measurements have been resource based, e.g. specifying the minimum amount of feeding space or the maximum stocking density, but now the trend is toward animal-based measures, such as the numberof lame animals, body condition, etc.
Objective determination of pelvic movement during hind limb lameness by use of a signal decomposition method and pelvic height differences.
OBJECTIVE: To evaluate pelvic movement over a large number of strides in sound horses and in horses with induced hind limb lameness by applying methods to the pelvis that have been described for evaluating vertical head movement in horses with induced forelimb lameness. ANIMALS: 17 adult horses. PROCEDURE: Horses were filmed while trotting on a treadmill before and after induction of transient mild and moderate hind limb lamenesses. Vertical pelvic movement was measured by a signal decomposition method. The vertical pelvic signal was decomposed into a periodic component (A1) that occurred at half the stride frequency (representing vertical pelvic movement caused by lameness) and another periodic component (A2) that occurred at stride frequency (representing normal vertical pelvic movement of a trotting horse). Vertical pelvic and foot positions were correlated for each stride to compare the difference between the minimum and maximum heights of the pelvis during and after stance of the right hind limb to the minimum and maximum heights of the pelvis during and after stance of the left hind limb. RESULTS: Maximum pelvic height difference and lameness amplitude (A1) differed significantly between sound and mild or moderate hind limb lameness conditions. Mean A1 value for vertical pelvic movement in sound horses was less than that previously reported for vertical head movement. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Pelvic height differences and signal decomposition of pelvic movement can be used to objectively evaluate hind limb lameness in horses over a large number of strides in clinical and research settings.
Forelimb joint moments and power during the walking stance phase of horses.
OBJECTIVE: To calculate normative joint moments of force and power for the forelimb of walking horses as a benchmark against which to compare these mechanical variables in horses with specific lameness. ANIMALS: 4 Dutch Warmblood horses with no recent history of lameness. PROCEDURE: Horses were walked by hand through the test area, and data from 5 walking trials were collected for each horse. Two camera views were combined with vertical and craniocaudal ground reaction forces to calculate net moments of force in the sagittal plane across the carpal, metacarpophalangeal (fetlock), and distal interphalangeal (coffin) joints during the stance phase of the forelimb. Mechanical power was calculated as the product of net joint moment and the joint's angular velocity. RESULTS: During the early part of the stance phase, the carpal joint had oscillating periods of energy generation and absorption against a predominant flexor moment, then an absorption phase at the end of the stance phase, as the carpus flexed into swing against an extensor moment. The fetlock absorbed energy in the early part of the stance phase, then the terminal part was marked by a large generation of energy across the joint. A flexor moment was measured at the coffin joint throughout the stance phase, and this coincided with a long phase of energy absorption followed by a short phase of generation for push-off. CONCLUSION: Consistency of the power data indicates that typical profiles of work exist for each of the joints (carpus, fetlock, and coffin). CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Detection of changes to these profiles of work may contribute to diagnosis of specific lameness conditions.
Proliferative osteitis of the femoral greater trochanter and humeral medial epicondyle as a cause of lameness in sows.
Thirteen chronically lame female breeding pigs were examined clinically and post mortem. Of the eight sows with hindleg lameness, one showed detachment of the ischial tuberosity and a second showed detachment of the ischial tuberosity on the left and a mid-shaft femoral fracture on the right. Two showed no lesions apart from a change in the positional relationship between the femoral head and the greater trochanter, resulting in a lowering of the femoral head. In the remaining four sows an apparently unreported condition was seen, which produced a proliferative osteitis of the greater trochanter. All five animals lame in the forelimb showed varying degrees of proliferative osteitis of the medial epicondyle of the humerus. Advanced cases could be palpated in the live animal. It is proposed that proliferative osteitis may be a response, at the point of attachment of the muscle masses of the major limbs, to the trauma of over exertion.
Assessment of the musculoskeletal system.
Assessment of food animal lameness provides a great challenge but also can be extremely rewarding for the practitioner. An accurate diagnosis is essential if treatment, control, and prevention are to be successful. All facets of veterinary medicine and animal science must be applied in order to make an accurate diagnosis. The complaint, history, and signs are the basic considerations in arriving at an accurate assessment and determining the cause so that lameness problems can be solved.
Neurologic conditions causing lameness in companion animals.
Animals presented with non-weight-bearing lameness are a diagnostic challenge for the veterinarian. It is extremely important to distinguish between orthopedic and neurologic causes of lameness, because the diagnostic and therapeutic plans can be quite different. Myopathies can be confused with orthopedic disease because of gait abnormalities and associated muscle pain. Common myopathies seen in companion animal medicine include polymyositis, muscular dystrophy, endocrine and infectious myopathies, and myasthenia gravis. Lameness caused by disease of the nerve root or nerve is confused with orthopedic disease because of the disturbances of a nerve's sensory distribution (nerve-root signature) or disruption of the motor innervation. The diseases of the nerve root or nerve discussed are lateralized intervertebral disk disease, spinal cord neoplasia, malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors, and traumatic neuropathies. The diagnosis of these diseases requires careful attention to the signalment, a complete history, and a thorough physical examination focusing on the neurologic and orthopedic components. Ancillary testing should be selected based on these results and a minimum database. Electrodiagnostic testing, radiography, and advanced imaging may help to localize the lesion more precisely and sometimes to confirm the diagnosis. Surgical exploration and histopathology often provide the definitive diagnosis. These cases of non-weight-bearing lameness are a diagnostic challenge, but when successful resolution can be reached, it is gratifying to the clinician, client, and patient.