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At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed1978

The need for process research on psychophysical judgment: comments on "Ratio and subtractive processes in psychophysical judgment" by Veit.

This article is a commentary on Veit's article "Ratio and Subtractive Processes in Psychophysical Judgment." Veit's article makes an important contribution to the area of psychophysical judgment by providing a systematic approach that combines measurement and psychological theory. Using multi-factor designs and a cross-task scale-invariance criterion, Veit shows how to concurrently examine the integration rule, response-transformation function, and psychophysical function for judgment tasks. The need to expand this methodology to further understand the operations and processes underlying psychophysical judgment is stressed in the present article, and an illustration involving feedback mechanisms is provided.

Feedback↗
PubMed1978

Clinical judgment: an ethical issue.

In conclusion, the position of this paper maintains that clinical judgment is a viable, ethical issue of the highest order. Clinical judgment involves the personal orientation, the ethical framework of the one making the decision. Whatever judgment is ultimately made carries with it the burden of the maker's personal ethical approach to life, to the nature of man and finally his approach to the world at large. Clinical judgment is inseparable from ethics. It is further maintained that there must be more research into the areas of clinical judgment in relation to psychiatric nursing research. Clinical specialists, in particular, will be called on to make increasingly complex judgments. They must have a valid method to assist in the formulation, testing and analysis of their decisions. A model must be developed that assists the decision maker in: 1. Objectively identifying and specifying stimul; 2. Controlling and regulating the conditions of the judgment-making-process, intrinsic as well as extrinsic; and 3. Defining and standardizing the conditions of reporting.

Clinical Competence↗
PubMed1975

Moral judgment and parental identification among children.

The relationship of moral judgment and parental identification was studied in 50 boys and 50 girls, all of whom were white, lower-middle-class children, aged 9 1/2 to 11 1/2 years. Two hypotheses were proposed: (1) that within each sex group, children with a higher-level parental identification attain a higher stage of moral judgment than children with a lower level of parental identification; and (2) that there are no sex differences in the stage of moral judgment attained by Ss from similar socioeconomic backgrounds. Ss were screened for socioeconomic status and age. Moral judgment was defined in terms of Piaget's "two moralities" of the child and measured by a structured interview that consisted of five subtests taken from Piaget. Parental identification was measured by means of a semantic space and differential technique, and Ss were grouped on the basis of low, medium and high levels of paternal and maternal identification. Results indicate that there are no significant sex differences in moral judgment. Within each sex group there is a clear positive relationship between high-level identification and a higher stage of moral judgment.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1977

Enhancement of maturity of moral judgment by parent education.

Relationships between maturity of moral judgment of parents, role-taking opportunities in the home, roletaking ability in children and maturity of children's moral judgment were studied. A parent intervention program designed to increase role-taking opportunities in the home thought to lead to an increase in the maturity of moral judgment of children was utilized. Suggestive evidence for the claim that it is possible to accelerate rates of moral maturity of children through intervening indirectly to train their parents was found. Significant relationships were also found between maturity of moral judgment in children and role-taking AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR role-taking in the home. Maturity of moral judgment of parents was not found to be significantly related to maturity of moral judgment of their children.

Adult↗
PubMed1979

Semantic judgment ability in adult aphasia.

Recent psycholinguistic literature suggests that language usage often involves the ability to make judgments or appraisals about various aspects of language. It was therefore the purpose of the present study to examine the semantic judgment or evaluation abilities of thirty persons with aphasia in comparison to these same behaviors in a group of thirty normal individuals. That is, this study examined subject ability to use knowledge to make comparisons or judgments in reference to specific criteria. Results support the existence of a judgment capacity and indicate that persons with aphasia are impaired in their ability to evaluate semantic material. Therefore, speech pathologists may wish to include semantic judgment tasks in their evaluation procedures and plan therapy directed toward the retrieval of judgment responses.

Aged↗
PubMed1975

Comparison of social judgments of creativity and intelligence.

Social judgment of creativity and intelligence was investigated by having subjects give trait ratings for stimulus profiles of actual art students based on abilities information alone, based on personality information alone, based on biographical information alone, and finally, based on the total set of all three types of cue information. Regression equations differed depending upon whether intelligence or creativity judgments were being predicted. For all types of information, there was a significant amount of variation unique to creativity judgments which could not be accounted for by intelligence judgments, and vice versa. However, the proposition of variation unique to each type of trait judgment was smallest when subjects had only abilities information available and was approximately four times larger when judgments were based on the total set of three types of cue information. Implications of this finding for the study of creativity are discussed.

Aptitude↗
PubMed1979

Children's judgments of utterance appropriateness.

Judgments of utterance appropriateness were examined in 3-, 4-, 5-, and 6-year olds to examine the bases for these judgments in a variety of social contexts. The results indicated that the 4- and 5-year olds based their judgments in part on factors such as the available nonlinguistic evidence supporting the utterance and the types of evaluative terms used in the utterance. The judgments of the 6-year olds more closely resembled those of a group of adults, but their judgments were not yet free of some of the factors operative for the younger children. The findings are discussed in terms of the illocutionary and conversational characteristics of the stimulus utterances.

Adult↗
PubMed1976

Behavioral analysis of clinical judgment.

Research on clinical judgment has produced conflicting information about effects of training on predictive accuracy, effects of the information available to the clinician, the correlates of accurate judgment, as well as the stability of such judgments. Such conflicting findings are largely related to lack of an adequate methodology. The present study examined the accuracy of judges making longitudinal clinical judgments with systematic increments in available information. Six judges, two non-experienced first-year graduate students in psychology, two medium-experienced practicum students, and two advanced interns, were asked to make discriminations between test protocols belonging to men convicted of first and second degree murder and men convicted of crimes against property. A discriminant function analysis classified 83% of these protocols accurately. Levels of information were increased in four phases. Most of the judges discriminated at a 50% accuracy level. No substantial increment in accuracy across phases was found. Judges of low accuracy discriminated best with the addition of the statistical findings. Daily judgments remained stable within the guessing range.

Criminal Psychology↗
PubMed1978

Criteria for same and different judgments and visual comparison strategies of four-year-olds.

4-year-olds made same and different judgments about pairs of stimuli requiring detailed comparison in 2 conditions: a judgment-only condition and a justification condition in which children explained the reasons for their judgments. The systematic comparison strategies revealed in the justifications indicated that all children had definite criteria for "same" and "different" although about two-thirds of the children used a criterion that differed from the adult criterion. Judgments were more accurate in the justification than in the judgment-only condition, suggesting that overt verbalizations and gestures may provide a beneficial external support for completion of a child's own visual comparison strategy.

Child Development↗
PubMed1977

A methodological study of factors affecting the judgment of misarticulated /s/.

Two studies involving judgments of /s/ misarticulation are described. The first involved simultaneous audio and video recordings of three clinically different /s/ misarticulating children. Their recorded /s/ productions, embedded in 54 sentences with varying phonetic contexts, were judged on an acceptable/unacceptable/questionable basis. There was a large proportion of judgments in the questionable category, relatively low interjudge reliability, and few clear enhancing contexts. To better define the problems inherent in using recorded /s/ misarticulations, a second study was undertaken in which six specially chosen /s/ defective and eight normally speaking subjects spoke a set of 12 sentences containing a total of 24 /s/ target words. These productions were judged dichotomously as correct/incorrect under live conditions and from tape recorded conditions. Both normal and /s/ defectives were easily and reliably detected under live speaking conditions; judgments from tape recordings showed a reduction in reliability of judgment and reduced ability to detect the /s/ defective speakers' errors. Examination of the recorded /s/ defective productions revealed that certain phonetic contexts, especially adjacent apical stops, appeared to encourage judgments of correct /s/ productions. Thd discussion includes suggestion concerning techniques for sampling and judging /s/ misarticulations.

Child↗
PubMed1979

Influence of six types of visual structure on complexity judgments in children and adults.

Individuals at five grade levels (kindergarten, Grade 2, Grade 4, Grade 6, and college) made pair-comparison judgments of visual complexity. The influence of the presence or absence of six types of visual structure (double symmetry, vertical symmetry, horizontal symmetry, diagonal symmetry, checkerboard organization, and rotational organization) and of amount of contour were examined. Two general developmental trends were revealed: First, the age at which visual structure initially affected complexity judgments varied with the type of structure, independent of amount of contour, within the range of contour values used. Second, there was a uniform increase in the effect of structure on complexity judgments between the fourth and sixth grades. These results are discussed in relation to possible mechanisms of visual pattern encoding and complexity judgment.

Adult↗
PubMed1979

Judgment of contingency in depressed and nondepressed students: sadder but wiser?

How are humans' subjective judgments of contingencies related to objective contingencies? Work in social psychology and human contingency learning predicts that the greater the frequency of desired outcomes, the greater people's judgments of contingency will be. Second, the learned helplessness theory of depression provides both a strong and a weak prediction concerning the linkage between subjective and objective contingencies. According to the strong prediction, depressed individuals should underestimate the degree of contingency between their responses and outcomes relative to the objective degree of contingency. According to the weak prediction, depressed individuals merely should judge that there is a smaller degree of contingency between their responses and outcomes than nondepressed individuals should. In addition, the present investigation deduced a new strong prediction from the helplessness theory: Nondepressed individuals should overestimate the degree of contingency between their responses and outcomes relative to the objective degree of contingency. In the experiments, depressed and nondepressed students were present with one of a series of problems varying in the actual degree of contingency. In each problem, subjects estimated the degree of contingency between their responses (pressing or not pressing a button) and an environmental outcome (onset of a green light). Performance on a behavioral task and estimates of the conditional probability of green light onset associated with the two response alternatives provided additional measures for assessing beliefs about contingencies. Depressed students' judgments of contingency were surprisingly accurate in all four experiments. Nondepressed students, on the other hand, overestimated the degree of contingency between their responses and outcomes when noncontingent outcomes were frequent and/or desired and underestimated the degree of contingency when contingent outcomes were undesired. Thus, predictions derived from social psychology concerning the linkage between subjective and objective contingencies were confirmed for nondepressed students but not for depressed students. Further, the predictions of helplessness theory received, at best, minimal support. The learned helplessness and self-serving motivational bias hypotheses are evaluated as explanations of the results. In addition, parallels are drawn between the present results and phenomena in cognitive psychology, social psychology, and animal learning. Finally, implications for cognitive illusions in normal people, appetitive helplessness, judgment of contingency between stimuli, and learning theory are discussed.

Association Learning↗
PubMed1975

Integration of information in a clinical judgment task, an empirical comparison of six models.

Six models were compared for their effectiveness in reproducing six clinical psychologists' judgments of 38 patients on intelligence, ability to establish contact, and control of affect and impulses. In two of the models, subjective weights were used in the prediction of a judge's ratings. The judges based their judgments solely on verbal protocols from the Rorschach, a sentence completion test, and the Thematic Apperception test. The stability of the linear aspect of the judgment process was very high but decreased as the depth of interpretation of the rating variable increased. The nonlinear aspect of the judgment process had considerably low stability. In general, a model based on subjective weights was most effective in reproducing the judges' ratings.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1978

When does a response error become a judgmental bias? Commentary on "Judged Frequency of Lethal Events".

The study of Lichtenstein, Slovic, Fischhoff, Layman, and Combs reports several types of errors in subjects' frequency judgments of lethal events. These errors are interpreted as reflecting the operation of two types of judgment biases. In this research, the objective or actual frequency of lethal events served as a standard of comparison; any deviation from this standard was defined as a bias. Thus, the research strategy used is apparently modeled after that of a psychophysicist using illusions to study basic perceptual processes. There is one key difference, however. In the case of illusions, the subject is directly exposed to the physical stimulus object. In the present study, however, subjects were never exposed to actual stimuli. Since subjects were asked to make judgments about things they had not directly experienced, it is not surprising that they would be inaccurate. But unlike the study of illusions, such inaccuracies have not been shown to have any necessary connection to psychological mechanisms. Therefore, it seems somewhat tenuous to offer psychological interpretations of judgmental biases when the origins of those biases have not yet been identified.

Female↗
PubMed1979

Surgical decision making. The reliability of clinical judgment.

Elective surgery second opinion programs are predicted on strict acceptance of the accuracy of the consultant's surgical judgment. The reliability and reproducibility of clinical judgment, therefore, become basic to the effectiveness of such programs. This aspect, however, has received little attention. We report a randomized and controlled survey of surgical specialists which defines agreement/disagreement patterns in surgical decision-making for seven elective surgical procedures. For each disease process, four case histories, including at least one control, were developed by specialty panels of physicians. The case summaries described fictional patients who were seeking professional consultation. The histories were mailed to a random sample of Board-certified specialists from the State of Maryland and the District of Columbia. The response rate was approximately 80% for all five specialties. The respondents were asked to indicate whether they would (Yes) or would not (No) perform the surgical procedure in question. Factual knowledge was not sought, but instead the application of that knowledge and experience to decide on the need for surgical intervention. By comparing the responses for each case history, the agreement/disagreement patterns of inter-observer surgical judgment were determined. Analysis of the data revealed a marked divergence of opinion concerning the need for surgery. The significant point of this study is that surgical judgment differs to a major degree from one surgeon to the next. In a second-opinion program the number of consultants needed to provide a reliable clinical decision probably exceeds the number who are logistically available and that the patient would be willing to visit. Surgical decision-making is a semi-exact scientific process, and it is unreasonable to expect exact answers to clinical problems.

Certification↗
PubMed1978

Priority setting in quality assurance: reliability of staff judgments in medical institutions.

A structured procedure using the judgments of a representative group of local providers for establishing priorities for quality assurance activity in diverse medical institutions was tested for reliability. Two independent matched teams of phy sicians, nurses, administrators, and other staff in eight separate medical facilities generated 320 topics which encompassed areas where quality assurance efforts would have either considerable or little impact in terms of improving health outcomes within reasonable costs. Concordance of judgment between teams in each facility was determined by analyzing the similarity of topics content, the agreement in scaling the health impact of similar topics generated by both teams independently, and the agreement by one team in scaling the health impact of topics generated by the other team. The findings revealed 44 per cent content agreement on topics independently generated, 93 per cent agreement on dichotomous scaling of similar topics, and 87 per cent agreement on five-point scaling of similar topics. Concordance of judgment by one team in scaling the other team's topics was highly significant (p less than .001). Preliminary analysis of topic content and scaling agreement among different facilities indicated low agreement both on the content areas and on the health impact of similar topics. It is concluded that the judgments of local providers in identifying cost-effective quality assurance priorities is highly relaible in the medical institutions studied.

Cost-Benefit Analysis↗
PubMed1975

Judgment error in category vs magnitude scales.

The effects of a variety of experimental conditions on the judgments (length of lines) of 16 normal and 16 mentally retarded observers were examined using category and magnitude scaling techniques. Using error and variability of judgment as criteria for measuring response bias, for normal subjects knowledge about the stimulus range, whether learned or provided, had as much to do with resulting judgments as the type of scale used. Judgment error of the retarded group was significantly greater than the normal group and appeared to be related to their limited ability to assign categories or proportions to the simuli used.

Adult↗