J. FURNEAUX JORDAN.
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This article looks at the contingent developments that led to the feminization of hospital dispensing at the end of the nineteenth century in England. In the 1870s, as a result of the campaign of the Women's Movement to open medicine to women, the Society for Promoting the Employment of Women found it possible to place some of its protégées in the dispensaries of hospitals founded by members of the Movement. Coincidentally, a radical member of the Council of the Pharmaceutical Society smoothed the way for them to take the Society's examinations, thus setting up an expectation that these women should be qualified. By the 1880s, the practice of employing female dispensers had spread to Birmingham, and the women here adopted a less difficult and expensive qualification, the Apothcaries' Assistant's Certificate, as the qualification of choice. The 1890s also saw increasing pressure on mainstream hospital dispensaries to replace the untrained assistants in their dispensaries, customarily employed on the Babbage Principle to save money, with qualified ones. In consequence, hospital managements sought a new means of containing costs and, turning to the kind of women already shown to be competent in Women's Movement hospitals, found the solution in a vertical gender-segregation, where the lesser qualification of women dispensers made them 'unpromotable' to head dispenser, thus preserving the career ladder for more highly-qualified male dispensers.
This essay examines the condition of Ireland before, during and after the famine which began in 1845 when the potato crop began to fail. A series of topics is presented: the quality of life, families, government aid, philanthropy, population changes, literacy, emigration, and public policy. The essay draws on the author's research quantifying the quality of life in Ireland, and on research analysing the heights of a sample of Irish army recruits in the famine era.
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Editor's note--The year 1989 marks the 20th year of progress for the American Nephrology Nurses' Association (ANNA). In this special anniversary issue, Journal staff and advisors have taken time to reflect back on the historical events and leaders who helped form the association. This article examines ANNA's history year by year, from the struggles and visions of a small group of nephrology nurses who founded the organization in Atlantic City, New Jersey in April 1969 to the association's position today as a leader in professional nursing and as a promoter of quality care to nephrology patients.
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