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At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed2004

The occurrence of influenza A virus on household and day care center fomites.

OBJECTIVE: The goal of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of influenza A virus on surfaces in day care and home settings to better assess the potential role of fomites in the transmission of influenza. METHODS: During two and a half years, 218 fomites were tested from 14 different day care centers. Ten different fomites from bathrooms, kitchens and play areas were sampled. In addition, 92 fomites from eight different homes with children were tested over 6 months. Fourteen different household fomites from bathrooms, kitchens and living areas were sampled. Influenza A viral RNA was detected using reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS: Influenza was detected on 23% of day care fomites sampled during the fall and 53% of fomites sampled during the spring. Spring and fall sample data was determined to be statistically different at the 0.05 alpha-level by Chi-square analysis P<0 and Fisher's Exact test P=0.00002. There was no statistical difference found between moist and dry fomites (Chi square P=0.13998). No influenza was detected on home fomites sampled during the summer. In contrast, influenza was detected on 59% of home fomites sampled during March. CONCLUSIONS: Influenza A virus was detected on over 50% of the fomites tested in homes and day care centers during influenza season.

Arizona↗
PubMed2006

Survival on uncommon fomites of feline calicivirus, a surrogate of noroviruses.

BACKGROUND: Norovirus (NoV) transmission occurs mainly through food and fomites. Contaminated human fingers can transfer the virus to inanimate objects, which may then spread the virus to susceptible persons. However, no information is available on the survival of NoVs on fomites, which may be of importance in the transmission of NoVs in institutional settings such as hospitals and nursing homes. METHODS: In the absence of any in vitro cultivation system for NoVs, feline calicivirus (FCV) was used as a surrogate. Several fomites such as computer mouse, keyboard keys, telephone wire, telephone receiver, telephone buttons, and brass disks representing faucets and door handle surfaces were artificially contaminated with known amounts of FCV. Samples were taken at regular time intervals, and virus was titrated in feline kidney cells to determine its survival on these surfaces. RESULTS: Survivability of FCV varied with fomite type. The virus survived for up to 3 days on telephone buttons and receivers, for 1 or 2 days on computer mouse, and for 8 to 12 hours on keyboard keys and brass. The time for 90% virus reduction was <4 hours on computer keys, mouse, brass, and telephone wire; 4 to 8 hours on telephone receiver; and 12 to 24 hours on telephone buttons. CONCLUSION: The results of this study confirm that FCV (and perhaps NoV) can survive on fomites such as computers, telephones, and faucets and may be transmitted to humans using these contaminated materials. This may necessitate regular cleaning or disinfection of these items, especially in hospitals and nursing homes and after known outbreaks of NoVs.

Caliciviridae Infections↗
PubMed1986

Survival of Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis in axenic purulent exudate on common barnyard fomites.

Several inanimate surfaces (eg, plastic, wood, and steel) and particulate fomites (eg, wood shavings, hay, straw, and feces), common to the environment of confined small ruminants, were inoculated with Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis in axenic purulent exudate that had been surgically removed from a naturally occurring case of caprine caseous lymphadenitis. Each inoculated fomite was incubated at 37, 22, and 4 C, and the length of time that C pseudotuberculosis survived was determined by isolation of bacteria from the fomite. The organism remained viable longer when caseous lymphadenitis abscess contents were mixed with particulate fomites than when spread on surfaces. Incubation at lower temperatures generally extended the survival potential of C pseudotuberculosis. Depending on the particulate fomite and the incubation temperature, viable C pseudotuberculosis organisms were isolated for mean periods ranging from 7 to 55 days, whereas recovery of bacteria from surfaces varied from 1 to 8 days.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Prevalence of rotavirus on high-risk fomites in day-care facilities.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of rotavirus contamination on environmental surfaces in day-care environments, using the polymerase chain reaction technique. DESIGN: High-risk fomites were identified in two day-care centers and sampled biweekly during a 6-month study period. Water samples from water-play tables in each center were also collected during the study period. During an infectious disease outbreak, fomites were sampled from the rooms in which the outbreak occurred. Reverse transcriptase/polymerase chain reaction was carried out for viral detection of rotavirus from the fomites, and standard bacteriologic measures were used to detect bacteria in samples from water-play tables. RESULTS: A total of 96 fomite samples were tested for presence of rotavirus from the two centers, of which 18/96 (19%) tested positive for rotavirus. The timing of the positive samples differed between the two centers. In the center that housed infants, a peak of rotavirus-positive fomites coincided with two enteric outbreaks. Rotavirus contamination was found on the telephone receiver, drinking fountain, water-play table, and toilet handles in both centers. Bacteria in large quantities were also identified in water-play table samples. CONCLUSIONS: Moist surfaces including the telephone, water fountains, and water-play tables are common sources of rotavirus contamination within the day-care environment. Until a safe and affordable drug or vaccine against rotavirus is available for general use, avoidance of rotaviral infections is the most effective method for the prevention of rotavirus gastroenteritis.

Baltimore↗
PubMed2001

Potential role of fomites in the vehicular transmission of human astroviruses.

The persistence of human astroviruses dried on representative porous (paper) and nonporous (china) surfaces was investigated. Long-term astrovirus survival on fomites was monitored by an integrated cell culture-reverse transcription-PCR procedure. Viruses were applied to inanimate surfaces in the presence and absence of fecal material, and their survival was assayed at 4 and 20 degrees C with high relative humidity. Astroviruses exhibited a notable persistence when dried on porous and nonporous materials, particularly at low temperature. Short-term survival of astroviruses on fomites was compared to that of other enteric viruses significant for health, such as rotavirus, adenovirus, poliovirus, and hepatitis A virus. Overall, astroviruses persisted better than poliovirus and adenovirus, although they exhibited a shorter survival than rotavirus and hepatitis A virus. Astroviruses show a high level of persistence at the desiccation step, which is of major significance in determining the chance of subsequent virus survival dried on fomites. Astroviruses are able to survive on inert surfaces long enough to suggest that fomites may play a relevant role in the secondary transmission of astrovirus diarrhea.

Astroviridae Infections↗
PubMed1994

Survival of enteric viruses on environmental fomites.

The survival of human enteric viruses on several porous (paper and cotton cloth) and nonporous (aluminum, china, glazed tile, latex, and polystyrene) environmental surfaces has been evaluated. Viruses persisted for extended periods on several types of materials commonly found in institutions and domestic environments. The stability of the viruses was generally influenced by environmental factors such as relative humidity (RH), temperature, and the type of surface contaminated. Overall, hepatitis A virus (HAV) and human rotavirus (HRV) were more resistant to inactivation than enteric adenovirus (ADV) and poliovirus (PV). The resistance to the desiccation step appears to be of major significance in determining the survival of a virus dried on fomites. ADV and PV showed a pronounced decrease in titer at this stage, whereas HAV and HRV displayed little decay at the desiccation step. HAV and HRV persistence was not affected by the presence of fecal material. On nonporous surfaces, PV and ADV persisted better in the presence of feces. However, on porous fomites the presence of fecal material had a negative influence on the survival of PV and ADV. Except for HRV, greater virus survival was observed at 4 degrees than at 20 degrees C. PV and HAV survival was enhanced at high RH; the survival of the latter was enhanced at least for nonporous materials. When dried on porous materials, HRV also exhibited greater persistence at high RH. The survival of ADV was not affected by RH. The validity of using bacteriophages of Bacteroides fragilis as indicators of human viruses dried on fomites was evaluated.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adenoviruses, Human↗
PubMed1991

Survival of pseudorabies virus in the presence of selected diluents and fomites.

Because of the importance of environmental survival of pseudorabies virus to proposals to eradicate the virus from swine in the United States, survival of the virus was studied in various diluents and on combinations of diluents and solid fomites at 25 C. Suspensions of the virus in phosphate-buffered saline and saline G solutions remained infectious for at least 10 days. Infectivity of other virus/diluent suspensions decreased to less than 10 plaque-forming units/ml in 14 days (swine urine), 7 days (well water), 4 days (swine saliva), 2 days (lagoon water and swine nasal washings), and 1 day (swine pit effluent, chlorinated water, and bile). Suspensions of pseudorabies virus in saline G solution and on the solid fomites, whole corn, and steel remained infectious for at least 7 days. Infectivity of other virus/diluent/fomite combinations decreased to less than 10 plaque-forming units/ml in 7 days. The role of the fomites as vehicles for transmission of infection is discussed.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed1996

Stability of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus in the presence of fomites commonly found on farms.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the survival of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) on nonliving substances (fomites) at 25 to 27 C. DESIGN: Prospective controlled study. SAMPLE POPULATION: 3 solid, 6 porous, and 7 liquid fomites. PROCEDURE: The fomites were contaminated with known concentrations of PRRSV. Samples for virus isolation were obtained on day 0 through day 11, assayed in cell cultures, and stained with fluorescent antibody conjugate. RESULTS: The virus was recovered only on day-0 samples of alfalfa, wood shavings, straw, plastic, boot rubber, and stainless steel. Virus was isolated from city water through day 11, from well water through day 9, and from 2 buffer solutions for 4 and 6 days. The virus was isolated only on day 0 from swine saliva, urine, and fecal slurry. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Results indicated that PRRSV is a fairly labile virus, but because of its duration of viability in water, contamination of drinking water and lagoons by PRRSV-shedding swine would serve as sources of virus to infect susceptible swine.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed2006

Fomite transmission in head lice.

Control of various infestations requires an accurate understanding of transmission. After thousands of years of lice infestation, scientific documentation of indirect contact transmission has been substantiated. Lice can be transferred in the egg, instar, and adult stages. Lice have now been shown in the laboratory to be readily dislodged by air movements such as blow-drying one's hair, combing, and toweling. Moreover, passive transfer to adjoining fabric is also frequently observed. Louse transmission by fomites occurs more frequently than has been commonly believed. Close proximity suffices to increase the likeliness of a new infestation. Thus louse control measures should take account of fomite transmission and include screening of all individuals within an infested person's immediate circle of contact, laundering of everything within the infested individuals' bed or quarantining of such material for 10 days, thorough vacuuming of floors, carpets, upholstery, with a standard vacuum cleaner.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Spread of acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis due to enterovirus-70: effect of air temperature and relative humidity on virus survival on fomites.

Enterovirus 70 (EV-70) has caused at least two pandemics and several major epidemics of acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis (AHC) in the past 18 years, with the largest number of cases occurring in the coastal areas of the tropics. The exact means of its spread are not known, but fomites and hands contaminated by them are the most likely vehicles. We, therefore, tested EV-70 survival under different environmental conditions using stainless steel disks (1 cm diameter). Each disk received 10 microliter of the virus in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). The disks were held at various temperatures with the relative humidity (RH) at the low (20 +/- 5%), medium (50 +/- 5%), high (80 +/- 5%), or ultrahigh (95 +/- 5%) level. The virus was eluted from the disks with tryptose phosphate broth and the eluate assayed in LLC-MK2cells. Inactivation rates (Ki), expressed as hourly loss of virus plaque forming units (PFU) in log10, were then calculated. At 20 degrees C, virus survival was proportional to the RH level, with the highest virus survival at the ultrahigh RH; at this level nearly 5% of the input virus was detectable even after 24 hr. Virus inactivation rates were only slightly higher at the ultrahigh RH when the temperature was raised to 33 degrees C or 35 degrees C. However, at 80% RH, increasing the temperature from 20 degrees C to 33 degrees C resulted in a dramatic rise in virus inactivation. The finding that high levels of RH prolong EV-70 survival on fomites may help explain the epidemiology of AHC resulting from EV-70.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

A membrane-based quantitative carrier test to assess the virucidal activity of disinfectants and persistence of viruses on porous fomites.

A membrane-based quantitative carrier test method to assess the virucidal activity of disinfectants and the persistence of viruses on fomites under different environmental conditions is described. The method is based on the inactivation of the virus adsorbed to cellulose ester membranes followed by the direct enumeration of the viruses surviving the treatment without the need of an elution step. The method was suitable for four different human enteroviruses tested. Experiments comparing the infectivity loss of human enteroviruses in suspension or adsorbed to the filters after treatment with chlorine and glutaraldehyde showed that the human enteroviruses tested suffered significantly greater log10 reductions when suspended than when adsorbed. Significant differences in the effect of the disinfectants on the various human enteroviruses tested were also observed. Moreover, the procedure allowed determining the inactivation of viruses on fomites under different environmental conditions. Low temperatures and high relative humidities favored the survival of human enteroviruses. Also, viruses adsorbed to the membranes retained their infectivity frozen at -70 degrees C for more than 1 year, thus providing the possibility of preparing very simple reference materials for testing virucidal activities of antiseptics and disinfectants.

Adsorption↗
PubMed1979

Potential risk of salivary-mediated viral hepatitis type B transmission from oral exposure to fomites.

Twelve grade school and junior high school students had oral exposures to hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) positive saliva via contact with contaminated musical instruments. The 12 exposed students and 18 students who served as age and sex matched controls were tested for the presence of HBsAg and antibody to the hepatitis surface antigen (anti-HBs) at 2 weeks, 8 weeks and 6 months after exposure. All students were negative for HBsAg and anti-HBs on all dates tested and reported no illness during that time suggestive of viral hepatitis. There was no evidence of viral hepatitis, type B transmission from the exposure. The students probably experienced the maximum possible oral exposure from direct or fomites contact, since there was no cleaning of the musical instruments between use by the students and teacher. Based on these results, the risk of transmission of viral hepatitis, type B from oral contact with fomites is unlikely.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1975

The role of fomites in the transmission of vaginitis.

A role for fomites such as toilet seats in the transmission of vaginitis has never been proved or disproved. A compilation of clinical data from a university community showed that the organisms found in vaginal cultures of patients with vaginitis were, in order of frequency. Candida albicans, Escherichia coli, beta-hemolytic streptococci, Hemophilus vaginalis and Trichomonas vaginalis. In a concurrent bacteriologic survey of washroom fixtures, staphylococci and other micrococci were isolated most frequently. The overt pathogens associated with vaginitis were never found, and gram-negative organisms appeared to be suppressed by the disinfectant used by the cleaning staff. It is clear that fomites are not an important mode of transmission in vaginitis, although a search for specific pathogens on toilets is to be continued.

Bacteria↗
PubMed2001

Survival of Shigella dysenteriae type 1 on fomites.

Studies have shown that various objects, such as utensils, toys, and clothes, can serve as vehicles for transmission of Shigella spp. Shigellae can become viable but non-culturable (VBNC) when exposed to various environmental conditions as shown in earlier studies. The present study was carried out to detect VBNC Shigella dysenteriae type 1 on various fomites by direct viable counting, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and fluorescent antibody methods. S. dysenteriae type 1 was inoculated onto cloth, wood, plastic, aluminum, and glass objects. Results showed that 1.5-4.0 hours after inoculation, S. dysenteriae type 1 became non-culturable, and after five days, non-culturable but viable S. dysenteriae type 1 could be detected by both PCR and fluorescent antibody techniques. Fomites can be considered an important potential route of transmission of VBNC S. dysenteriae type 1 and a significant factor in the epidemiology of shigellosis.

Bangladesh↗
PubMed1991

Fomites and reservoirs of Staphylococcus aureus causing intramammary infections as determined by phage typing: the effect of milking time hygiene practices.

We studied the association of milkers' hands and milking unit liners as fomites, and teat skin as a reservoir, with S. aureus intramammary infections (IMI). Samples were collected from 40 commercial herds and S. aureus isolates were phage typed. Only 10 of 257 isolates were not typable. Of the milk samples, 8.4% had typable S. aureus; 4.5% and 9.2% of the skin and liner swabbings had typable S. aureus. Twenty-three different phage types were identified, 1 type was found in nearly 75% of the herds. Herds in which milking unit backflush was used were less likely to have the same phage type on the liners and the teat skin, and on the liners and milk samples, than herds that did not backflush. A greater percentage of liners had S. aureus of the same type as those causing S. aureus IMI, than skin swabbing solutions with the same type as that associated with IMI. Herds which did not use post-milking teat asepsis (teat dip) did not have a greater percentage of S. aureus isolates on the teat skin, nor were the S. aureus test skin isolates more likely to be of the same type as those causing intramammary infection. Results would suggest that the liner appears to be a significant fomite, that backflushing reduces its significance, and that teat skin is a less significant reservoir for S. aureus intramammary infection.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Efficacy comparison of glutaraldehyde-phenate vs other glutaraldehydes in fomites disinfection, by different methods.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the efficacy of glutaraldehyde-phenate against four other glutaraldehydes. DESIGN: We use two methods: (1) Bacteriostatic method- With 97 microrganisms of 8 different species. (2) Bactericide method- With a low contamination (10(4)cfu) plus organic soil (simulating the work conditions of glutaraldehyde when we wash fomites before disinfection), we used six microorganisms (the most sensitive and the most resistant, according to the first method, of three species: P. aeruginosa, R. pneumoniae and S. aureus) in different times and concentrations. RESULTS: Glutaraldehyde-phenate is the most active against Gram-positives, but less with Gram-negatives. However when we study the total effect of the five glutaraldehydes, there are no significant differences among the mean of the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICm). With the bactericide method the total bactericide effect (0% survival) is easily achieved with the five glutaraldehydes at 2% dilution, but when we reduced the concentration (1/16) we needed 60 minutes for glutaraldehyde-phenate and 15-30 minutes with the rest. CONCLUSIONS: The five products have got a similar efficacy in higher concentration, but at 1/16 dilution glutaraldehyde-phenate need increase the contact-time on the fomite.

Disinfectants↗
PubMed2006

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus survival on hospital fomites.

We examined the duration of survival of 2 strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) on 3 types of hospital fomites. MRSA survived for 11 days on a plastic patient chart, more than 12 days on a laminated tabletop, and 9 days on a cloth curtain. Irregular surfaces may help harbor organisms in the environment. In addition to contact precautions, MRSA containment during an outbreak should include concurrent environmental decontamination.

Bedding and Linens↗
PubMed2006

Spores, sporodochia and fomites in onychomycosis.

Onychomycosis is a frequent infection. Contagion rarely depends on direct contamination, but rather on environmental propagule dispersion including the intervention of fomites. The potential release of fungal cells in the environment from the affected nails has not been thoroughly studied. Observations made by histomycology suggest that arthroconidia and chlamydoconidia issued from invading fungi can be involved. In addition, the sporodochium, which is an exophytic fungal ball, may be attached underneath the distal free edge of some onychomycoses. It might represent an important source of fungal propagules in patients with poor nail trimming.

Aged↗