Hip pain, flank pain, and fever.
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Abscess↗
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[First experiences in non-enhanced spiral computed tomography for diagnosis of acute flank pain].
Acute flank pain is commonly encountered in the emergency department, and often requires imaging to establish its cause. For decades intravenous urography and sonography have been the primary media for evaluating flank pain. Recently, noncontrast spiral CT (NCSCT) has been shown to be accurate and highly successful in diagnosing cause in such cases. We evaluated its use in the diagnosis of acute flank pain. During a 7-month period, 147 such cases had NCSCT imaging immediately after initial evaluation in the emergency department. Using a spiral CT scan without oral or i.v. contrast media, 109 of 147 cases were found to have ureteral stones, and 34 others to have other urological conditions unrelated to the cause of pain; 38 CT scans were negative for ureterolithiasis and in 14 non-urological disease was diagnosed. NCSCT is a valuable diagnostic technique for patients in the emergency department with flank pain. It rapidly and accurately detects ureteral stones causing renal colic and also detects extra-urinary causes of acute flank pain.
Abdominal Pain↗
Alternative diagnoses to stone disease on unenhanced CT to investigate acute flank pain.
Acute flank pain is a common problem in emergency medicine. The most frequent cause is urolithiasis, but many other entities can cause the same clinical presentation. In many institutions unenhanced computed tomography (CT) of the abdomen is used in this setting. One of the major advantages of unenhanced CT is its ability to detect other pathologies causing flank pain. In this pictorial review, we present the CT findings of pathologies other than stone disease in patients with acute flank pain.
Adult↗
Modern approach of diagnosis and management of acute flank pain: review of all imaging modalities.
Acute flank pain is a common and complex clinical problem which might be caused by a variety of urinary and extraurinary abnormalities among which ureterolithiasis being the most frequent cause. Plain abdominal radiographs combined with intravenous urography (IVU) have been the standard imaging procedures of choice for the evaluation of acute flank pain over the last decades. Direct detection of even small ureteral calculi is achieved in 40-60%, whereas using indirect signs such as ureteral and renal pelvic dilatation stone detection is possible in up to 80-90% of all cases. However, IVU might be hampered by poor quality due to lack of bowel preparation, by nephrotoxicity of contrast agents, by serious allergic and anaphylactic reactions in 10% and 1% of the patients, respectively, and by significant radiation exposure. The use of ultrasonography (US) in the management of acute flank pain has been growing and when combining the findings of pyeloureteral dilatation, direct visualization of stones, and the absence of ureteral ejaculation, the sensitivity to detect ureteral dilatation can be as high as 96%. Recently, unenhanced helical CT (UHCT) has been introduced as imaging modality with a high sensitivity and specificity for the evaluation of acute flank pain. UHCT has been demonstrated to be superior since (1) it detects ureteral stones with a sensitivity and specificity from 98% to 100% regardless of size, location and chemical composition, (2) it identifies extraurinary causes of flank pain in about one third of all patients presenting with acute flank pain, (3) it does not need contrast agent, and (4) it is a time saving imaging technique being performed within 5min. Based on the data published, one can predict that UHCT will become the imaging procedure of choice for evaluation of acute flank pain within the next years. The purpose of this review is to critically evaluate the role all imaging modalities available for a modern approach of diagnosis and management of acute flank pain with regard to their sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values and their complications, toxicicty and morbidity.
Acute Disease↗
Evaluation of the patient with flank pain and possible ureteral calculus.
Flank pain due to urolithiasis is a common problem in patients presenting to emergency departments. Radiology plays a vital role in the work-up of these patients. Many modalities can be used, including ultrasonography, nuclear medicine, and the traditionally used techniques of intravenous urography and conventional radiography. The development of nonenhanced computed tomography (CT) (single- or multi-detector row helical) has provided a means to enable detection and characterization of urolithiasis with unprecedented sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy while yielding important information for treatment planning, including the size and location of calculi. This technique can also help detect causes for flank pain outside the genitourinary tract. However, close attention must be paid to all aspects of the CT study to prevent misdiagnoses.
Diagnostic Imaging↗
Reexamining the value of hematuria testing in patients with acute flank pain.
PURPOSE: Hematuria testing is routinely performed in patients with acute flank pain to screen for ureterolithiasis and to help determine the need for excretory urography. Unenhanced helical computerized tomography (CT) has recently been shown to be superior to excretory urography in diagnosing ureteral obstruction and can evaluate many other causes of flank pain. Given the speed, accuracy and safety of CT the value of hematuria testing for acute flank pain should be reexamined. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We reviewed the medical records of 267 consecutive patients with acute flank pain referred for unenhanced helical CT. Microscopic and dipstick urinalysis data were obtained in 195 patients. Using helical CT as the gold standard, we calculated the sensitivity, specificity, predictive value and accuracy of hematuria for diagnosing ureterolithiasis. RESULTS: Of the patients with ureterolithiasis 33% had 5 or less, 19% had 1 or less and 11% had no red blood cells (RBCs) per high power field. Of the patients without ureterolithiasis 24% had greater than 5 and 51% had greater than 1 RBC per high power field. Of the patients with ureterolithiasis 14% had a negative dipstick test and 1 RBC or less per high power field. There were 25 patients without ureterolithiasis who had CT abnormalities unrelated to the urinary tract, of whom 8 had greater than 1 RBC per high power field. CONCLUSIONS: Absence of hematuria in the setting of acute flank pain cannot exclude a diagnosis of ureterolithiasis and should not obviate other diagnostic testing. Even when strongly positive on microscopy, hematuria has insufficient positive predictive value for diagnosing ureterolithiasis and may be misleading as other serious conditions resulting in acute flank pain may yield a positive test.
Acute Disease↗
Acute flank pain: a modern approach to diagnosis and management.
Acute flank pain is a common and complex clinical problem. In addition to flank pain caused by ureterolithiasis, other urinary and extraurinary abnormalities can result in a similar clinical picture. Unenhanced CT can rapidly, accurately, and safely determine the presence or absence of ureteral obstruction. When obstruction is caused by ureterolithiasis, CT allows precise determination of stone size and location. These are the two most important factors used for patient management. In addition to direct stone visualization, there are many secondary CT signs of ureteral obstruction that are direct manifestations of the underlying pathophysiology. On the other hand, when obstruction is absent, CT can diagnose or exclude most other abnormalities that result in flank pain. As a result of its many advantages, unenhanced helical CT should become the dominant imaging modality for evaluation of all patients with acute flank pain in whom a clinical diagnosis is uncertain.
Acute Disease↗
Helical CT scanning: the primary imaging modality for acute flank pain.
We set out to evaluate the accuracy of nonenhanced helical computed tomography (CT) scanning at stone detection in the patient with acute flank pain, and as a means of detecting noncalculus causes of acute flank pain. Between April 1995 and April 1997, 412 consecutive patients with acute flank pain underwent noncontrast-enhanced helical CT. Two hundred eighty-one patients had confirmation of their CT diagnosis by other radiographic studies, urologic intervention, or spontaneous stone passage of calculi. We determined the presence or absence of urinary calculi, as well as the presence of other noncalculus pathology. CT scanning revealed a stone in 92/281 patients (32.7%) and no stone in 189/281 patients (67.3%). Of the 189 patients, 60/189 patients (32%) had another positive finding as a cause for flank pain. Eighty-one of 92 patients with a stone on CT (88%) had confirmation of stone disease by radiologic or surgical intervention. Eleven of 92 patients (12%) did not have confirmation of their diagnosis because of resolution of symptoms or refusal of further intervention. On helical CT scans 129/189 patients demonstrated no abnormalities. Two of 189 (1.5%) thought to be stone free by CT passed a stone. Helical CT had a sensitivity of 97%, a specificity of 92%, a positive predictive value of 88%, and a negative predictive value of 98% at stone detection. Noncontrast-enhanced helical CT is accurate and rapid in detecting calculus disease in patients with acute flank pain. Perhaps more importantly, it provides the added benefit of detecting noncalculus causes of flank pain in greater than 30% of patients.
Adolescent↗
Left flank pain as the sole manifestation of acute pancreatitis: a report of a case with an initial misdiagnosis.
Acute pancreatitis is not an uncommon disease in an emergency department (ED). It manifests as upper abdominal pain, sometimes with radiation of pain to the back and flank region. Isolated left flank pain being the sole manifestation of acute pancreatitis is very rare and not previously identified in the literature. In this report, we present a case of acute pancreatitis presenting solely with left flank pain. Having negative findings on an ultrasound initially, she was misdiagnosed as having possible "acute pyelonephritis or other renal diseases". A second radiographic evaluation with computed tomography showed pancreatitis in the tail with abnormal fluid collected extending to the left peri-renal space. We performed a literature review and discussed this rare occurrence of acute pancreatitis. We also discussed the clinical pitfalls in this case.
Diagnostic Errors↗
[Excruciating flank pain: "acute renal colic"].
The classic presentation of acute renal colic is the sudden onset of very severe pain in the flank primarily caused by the acute ureteral obstruction. The diagnosis is often made on clinical symptoms only, although confirmatory exams are generally performed because many others significant disorders may present with symptom of flank pain that mimics renal colic. Life threatening emergency such as abdominal aortic aneurysm must be ruled out. While non contrast CT has become the standard imaging modality, in some situations, a plain abdominal radiograph associated with a renal ultrasound or a contrast study such as intravenous pyelogram may be preferred. Hematuria is frequently present on urine analysis. The usual therapy represented by analgesic and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs should be started as soon as possible. Size and location of the stone are the most important predictors of spontaneous passage. Uncontrolled pain by medical therapy, fever, oligo-anuria suggest complicated stone disease. Such conditions require emergency treatment by drainage or stone extraction. Although recurrent stone rate is important, extensive metabolic explorations are not recommended after an uncomplicated first episode. Nevertheless fluid intake is encouraged and a stone chemical analysis should be performed whenever possible.
Acute Disease↗
Unenhanced helical computed tomography in the evaluation of acute flank pain.
OBJECTIVE: The diagnostic value of unenhanced helical computed tomography (CT) for the evaluation of acute flank pain is investigated in a prospective study. PATIENTS AND METHODS: In 125 patients aged 18-86 years, we performed unenhanced helical CT in addition to abdominal plain film, abdominal ultrasound and urinalysis as a diagnostic measure for acute flank pain. Ureteral calculi were confirmed or, respectively, excluded by retrograde ureteropyelography in 80 cases. In the other cases, diagnosis was verified by clinical course and/or stone asservation. RESULTS: In 91 of 125 patients the flank pain was caused by a ureteral calculus. In 67 of 91 patients with urolithiasis, stones could be collected for analysis. Helical CT was able to precisely identify 90 ureteral calculi. Abdominal plain films led to 8 false-positive and 48 false-negative findings. Thus, sensitivity of plain radiography, ultrasound and urinalysis was 47, 11 and 84% with a specificity 76, 97 and 32%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Unenhanced helical CT reaches a distinctively increased diagnostic value (sensitivity 99%, specificity 97%) in the evaluation of acute flank pain as compared to plain radiography, ultrasound and urinalysis.
Acute Disease↗
The value of unenhanced helical computerized tomography in the management of acute flank pain.
PURPOSE: We developed an algorithm using unenhanced computerized tomography (CT) for the management of acute flank pain and suspected ureteral obstruction. MATERIALS AND METHODS: During a 25-month interval 417 patients with acute flank pain underwent unenhanced helical CT. The final diagnosis was confirmed by additional imaging or clinical followup. For all patients who underwent additional imaging studies the official dictated radiology reports were used to determine whether the studies were recommended based on CT findings. Cases requiring intervention were evaluated to determine whether additional imaging was performed before the procedure. Medical records were reviewed and/or patients were interviewed to document the course of therapy and long-term outcome. RESULTS: Unenhanced helical CT diagnosed ureteral stone disease with 95% sensitivity, 98% specificity and 97% accuracy. Of the 38 patients requiring intervention, including nephrostomy catheters in 18, lithotripsy in 3 and ureteroscopic stone extraction in 7, additional imaging (excretory urography) was performed in only 1. Additional imaging studies generated by CT were done in 3 cases in which the dictated reports were indeterminate for ureteral stones, including negative excretory urography in 2 and retrograde urography in 1. In 1 patient in whom CT misdiagnosed a ureteral stone unnecessary retrograde urography revealed the calcification to be a gonadal vein phlebolith. Seven patients with false-negative examinations reported spontaneous stone passage with no complications. CONCLUSIONS: Unenhanced helical CT accurately determines the presence or absence of ureterolithiasis in patients with acute flank pain. CT precisely identifies stone size and location. When ureterolithiasis is absent, other causes of acute flank pain can be identified. In most cases additional imaging is not required.
Abdomen, Acute↗
Low dose unenhanced helical computerized tomography for the evaluation of acute flank pain.
PURPOSE: Unenhanced helical computerized tomography (CT) has proved to be an excellent diagnostic tool for evaluating acute flank pain with reported 95% to 100% sensitivity, 92% to 100% specificity, 96% to 100% positive and 91% to 100% negative predictive values. The diagnostic value of a new low dose protocol was prospectively studied and compared with the results of conventional unenhanced helical CT in a previous series with an effective dose equivalent (HE) of 3.1 to 4.3 mSv. and in current literature with an estimated HE of 4.3 to 4.7 mSv. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In 109 patients 18 to 86 years old with acute flank pain we performed low dose unenhanced helical CT in addition to abdominal ultrasound and urinalysis with new CT parameters (120 kV. 70 mA., 5 mm. collimation, pitch 2 and incremental reconstruction each 5 mm.) that led to a more than 50% decrease in radiation exposure to 1.50 mSv. in females and 0.98 mSv. in males. Ureteral calculi were confirmed or excluded by retrograde ureteropyelography in 51 cases. In the other cases the diagnosis was verified by the clinical and ultrasound course, and/or stone asservation. RESULTS: In 80 of the 109 patients the flank pain was caused by a ureteral calculus. Low dose unenhanced helical CT precisely identified 77 ureteral calculi with 1 false-positive finding. Thus, the sensitivity and specificity of low dose unenhanced helical CT were 96% and 97% with a 99% positive and 90% negative predictive value. In 15 of 29 patients with CT findings negative for stone disease different causes of pain were established by low dose unenhanced helical CT. CONCLUSIONS: Even with the significantly decreased radiation exposure of the low dose protocol unenhanced helical CT is still an excellent and rapid diagnostic tool for evaluating acute flank pain with lower radiation exposure than excretory urography (HE 1.3 to 2.3 mSv.) at our departments. Only in obese patients with a body mass index of greater than 31 kg./m.2 is conventional unenhanced helical CT with higher radiation exposure recommended to achieve adequate image quality.
Acute Disease↗
A middle-aged woman with back and flank pain.
Xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis is an uncommon variant of chronic pyelonephritis that predominantly affects middle-aged women. Patients usually present with fever, back or flank pain, flank mass, and the constitutional symptoms of fatigue, malaise, weight loss, and anorexia. Rarely, they may present with a draining sinus. There is usually a history of urinary tract infection, obstruction, or instrumentation. Other abnormalities include anemia, leukocytosis, abnormal liver enzymes, pyuria, and hematuria. Mild azotemia may be present, but frank renal failure is rare. Urine and renal tissue cultures are frequently positive. The most commonly isolated bacterial pathogens are P. mirabilis and E. coli, but other organisms have also been implicated. A CT scan is the best radiologic imaging technique to discover the extent of inflammation as well as any involvement of adjacent structures. Lipid-laden macrophages called xanthoma cells characterize the disease at the microscopic level. Nephrectomy is curative. Careful preoperative evaluation will guide surgical planning in choosing an approach that provides adequate exposure of the affected tissue and facilitates subsequent care of the patient.
Back Pain↗
[Native spiral computerized tomography in patients with acute flank pain--sense or nonsense?].
PURPOSE: To compare the diagnostic efficacy and costs of native spiral-CT and intravenous urography (IVU) in the management of patients with acute flank pain. METHOD: Native spiral-CT and IVU (following about 30 minutes after CT) were compared in 66 patients with acute flank pain followed by an IVU. The spiral-CT protocol was: 5-mm section thickness, 7.5-mm table feed and 3-mm increment. The analysis conducted independently by two radiologists entailed: (a) Morphology: presence of stone disease (yes-no), localization and size of calculi, periureteral and perirenal stranding, dilatation of the collecting system, and possible alternative diagnoses and (b) cost-effectiveness: direct and indirect costs. RESULTS: Fifty-two patients had urolithiasis. The detection rate of renal and ureteric calculi was significantly higher with native spiral-CT than with IVU (100% vs. 69%, respectively) (p < 0.05). A specific sign of ureteric calculi was the so-called soft tissue "rim sign" (sensitivity 82% and specificity 100%, respectively). In 13 of 14 patients with acute flank pain with no evidence of urolithiasis alternative diagnoses could be made by spiral-CT. Spiral-CT was significantly more cost-effective than IVU in management. CONCLUSION: Native spiral-CT is faster, more effective and less expensive than IVU in the management of patients with acute flank pain. Additionally, it poses less risk and has the capability for allowing alternative diagnoses. Therefore, unenhanced spiral-CT should be the first line modality in patients with acute flank pain.
Acute Disease↗
Investigation of acute flank pain: how do practices of U.K.and Irish urologists compare with those of transatlantic and continental European colleagues?
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Noncontrast-enhanced spiral CT (NESCT) is more accurate and reliable than intravenous urography (IVU) in diagnosing the cause of acute flank pain. This study aimed to determine the impact of current literature on the choice of imaging modality used to investigate acute flank pain within the UK and the Republic of Ireland. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A questionnaire regarding the preferred investigation for acute flank pain was sent to all consultant urologists registered as British Association of Urological Surgeons members. RESULTS: Of the 548 consultants from 210 institutions surveyed, 293 (54%) from 171 (81.4%) institutions returned their questionnaires. Intravenous urography is used in the majority of institutions (146; 85.4%) for investigating acute flank pain. Only 18 (10.5%) use NESCT, while 4.1% use ultrasonography. Among those using IVU as the investigation of choice, the main reason given was limited CT services (82.4%). Others included familiarity with IVU features (51.2%), limited availability of radiologists for out-of-hours reporting of CT (26%), more rapid procedure (20.8%), lower cost (20%), and lower radiation exposure (19.6%). Only 52.4% of consultants using IVU would prefer NESCT if both were equally available. CONCLUSIONS: Urography remains the commonest modality for the investigation of acute flank pain in the UK and Ireland primarily because of limited CT services and greater familiarity with the images. Given the opportunity, only half of consultant urologists would select NESCT in preference to IVU, suggesting that improving the availability of CT services alone may not lead to practice paralleling that of our transatlantic and continental European colleagues.
Acute Disease↗
Duration of symptoms and follow-up patterns of patients discharged from the emergency department after presenting with abdominal or flank pain.
BACKGROUND: Little is known about the duration of symptoms and follow-up patterns of patients seen in emergency departments for abdominal or flank pain. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to measure the duration of symptoms and follow-up rate of patients discharged home from the emergency department after presenting with non-traumatic abdominal or flank pain. METHODS: We conducted a single-centre, prospective descriptive study of adult patients who presented to our emergency department with non-traumatic abdominal or flank pain and were discharged from the emergency department. We gathered clinical data during the index emergency department visit and conducted telephone interviews of subjects 2-5 weeks later. RESULTS: We reached 63 of 90 subjects (70%). The median duration of pain was 3 days after the emergency department visit. During the follow-up period, only 41% had followed-up with their family physician or primary care provider, although an additional 21% had planned to. Persistence of symptoms was common in the 37% of subjects who did not follow-up. CONCLUSION: Of subjects discharged from the emergency department after visits for non-traumatic abdominal or flank pain, most improve within several days. Fewer than half follow-up with a family practitioner or a primary care provider. Emergency department revisits are uncommon and often for unrelated problems.
Abdominal Pain↗
[Segmental renal infarction presenting as acute flank pain].
OBJECTIVES: To report the clinical case of a male with acute onset right flank pain and significant deterioration of his general status. METHODS: 40-year-old male patient with acute onset of flank pain, progressive worsening, and fever up to 40 degrees C. Blood analysis (hemogram, coagulation tests, and serum ions), urine analysis, and abdominal x-rays, ultrasound and CT scan were performed. After the diagnosis of segmental renal infarction treatment with low molecular weight heparin was started. RESULTS: Patient improved clinically and was discharged from hospital 10 days later and received final discharge as outpatient after 6-month follow-up visit. CONCLUSIONS: Renal infarction should be taken into consideration in the differential diagnosis of acute flank pain, when more frequent causes as renal colic or inflammatory-infectious diseases are ruled out, mainly in patients with cardiovascular diseases because the most frequent cause is embolism.
Acute Disease↗