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PubMed1995

Lipid-based fat substitutes.

Fats and oils account for 38% of the total calories in the diet of Western populations, especially in the U.S. They provide the most concentrated source of energy, 9 kcal/g of a triacylglycerol molecule compared with 4 kcal/g provided by carbohydrate and protein. In response to consumer demands for low-calorie or calorie-free fats and their reluctance to give up the taste of fat, current research efforts have been directed toward the development of lipid-like fat substitutes. These fat substitutes contain the fatty acids found in conventional fats and oils, with all the physical and organoleptic properties of fats, but provide few or no calories in the diet. Some of the fat substitutes are modified triacylglycerols (glycerol backbone) with reduced digestion and absorption; others are digestible and nondigestible carbohydrate fatty acid esters and polyesters, respectively. Sucrose polyester (Olestra), a sucrose molecule esterified with six to either fatty acids, is the most studied of the lipid-based fat substitutes containing a carbohydrate backbone. If approved by the FDA, sucrose polyester will find application in almost all fat-containing foods. Specialty fats or fat substitutes targeted to certain individuals with special needs are being developed. Among these are the medium-chain triacylglycerols and structured lipids (glycerol backbone), or ¿nutraceuticals¿ with reduced absorption and medical applications. Enzyme biotechnology is another tool available to lipid chemists to selectively modify, esterify, transform, transesterify, and interesterify fats and oils or synthesize new lipids such as structured lipids of food, nutritional, and medical importance. These designer fats may be the trend in the future to produce medical lipids that do not occur normally in nature. The different types of lipid-based fat substitutes are reviewed with respect to their synthesis, analysis, metabolism, potential applications/uses, and the future of fat substitutes.

Dietary Fats, Unsaturated↗

PubMed1996

Impact of fat substitutes on fat intake.

Dietary fat is the number one nutrition concern of Americans. In response to rising consumer demand for reduced-fat foods, the food industry has developed a multitude of nonfat, lowfat, and reduced-fat versions of regular food products. To generate reduced-fat or fat-free products that have the same organoleptic characteristics of the regular fat version, food manufacturers frequently employ fat substitutes in the formulation of these foods. Fat substitutes are made from either carbohydrate, protein, or fat, or a combination of these components. Researchers have questioned the impact of fat substitutes on both fat and caloric intake. The majority of research studies in which fat substitutes were either covertly or overtly substituted for dietary fat indicate that in short-term, carefully-controlled conditions, fat substitutes can decrease both dietary fat intake and percentage of calorie intake from fat. However, individuals compensate for the caloric deficit created by the fat substitutes by increasing their consumption of other macronutrients, primarily carbohydrate. The long-term effect of fat substitutes on the fat intake of free-living individuals and weight control are unknown. People tend to eat more of a food when they know that food is reduced in fat. Fat substitutes should not be considered a substitute for sound nutrition education and a healthy lifestyle which includes regular exercise.

Anticholesteremic Agents↗

PubMed1992

Fat substitutes: a regulatory perspective.

Fat substitutes, in theory, may provide special health benefits to certain population segments. The most probable benefits are a reduction in total fat intake and a subsequent reduction in intake of calories from fat. Whether individuals who consume high intakes of fat substitutes that are partially or totally nondigestible also benefit from lower calorie intake on a long-term basis is unknown. It is likely that many individuals will compensate by increasing total food intake to maintain calorie intake. Consumption of fat substitutes presents nutrition problems. Those fat substitutes that are partially or totally nondigested may reduce the bioavailability of other nutrients. Similarly, fat substitutes may have adverse effects on normal gastrointestinal tract function or intestinal tract flora. Unlike other functional food additives, fat substitutes can make up a significant portion of the total diet. For this reason, traditional safety factors cannot be applied. Consequently, more reliance on data from clinical studies involving human subjects and requirements for postmarket surveillance will be necessary as part of the approval process.

Dietary Fats↗

PubMed1995

Nutrient substitutes and their energy values in fat substitutes and replacers.

In recent years, new and redesigned ingredients have been introduced as fat substitutes and replacers. A fat replacer is an ingredient that replaces some or all of the functions of fat and may or may not provide nutritional value. A fat substitute is an ingredient that replaces all the functions of fat without any energy contribution. Currently available fat replacers are fat mimics (also called mimetics) or fat analogs. Fat mimics are based on carbohydrate, protein, and/or fat and have energy values from 0 to 38 kJ/g (0-9 kcal/g). Fat analogs have the characteristics of fat but have less energy. Because no one ingredient replaces all the functions of fat, most reduced-fat foods are formulated with a combination of ingredients and processes that affect both fat and energy content. Each formula must be evaluated for its total energy value; additionally, once acceptability and long-term use patterns of these reformulated products are established, their effect on energy intake must also be evaluated.

Dietary Fats↗

PubMed1992

Effects of olestra, a noncaloric fat substitute, on daily energy and fat intakes in lean men.

Nutrient and energy intakes, hunger, and fullness were examined after the replacement of 36, 20, or 0 g fat in breakfast with olestra, a noncaloric fat substitute. Twenty-four lean, nondieting men (aged 21-30 y) participated in a placebo-controlled, three-condition crossover design. Self-selected, ad libitum intakes at lunch and dinner were monitored in the laboratory. Evening snacks and breakfast the next day were assessed through food diaries. Visual-analog-scale ratings including hunger and fullness were collected throughout the test days. Single-meal olestra substitution produced a significant dose-related reduction in the amount and percentage of energy from fat consumed daily with a reciprocal increase in carbohydrate intake. Daily energy intakes were not significantly different nor did ratings of hunger and fullness vary systematically between conditions. Consumption of olestra can reduce fat intake and increase carbohydrate intake without affecting total daily energy intake or usual patterns of hunger and fullness.

Adult↗

PubMed1992

Nutritional implications of fat substitutes.

The possibility of replacing fats in foods through the use of alternative ingredients has generated substantial interest among food industry and nutrition professionals as well as among the lay public and news media. However, even in academic circles, there is a tendency to consider "fat substitutes" as a homogeneous group, when they are not, and also to make unproven assumptions regarding their likely efficacy in reducing fat intake and aiding in maintenance of appropriate energy balance. Governmental and industrial bodies have tended to place much greater emphasis on the potential risks of these materials than on their possible benefits. A reasoned consideration of the nutritional implications of fat substitutes examines what these materials are, how they might be used, and how they might affect eating behavior and nutritional status in the general population. The existing literature suggests that although the risks of existing and proposed fat substitutes are probably limited, their nutritional benefits are largely unproven.

Cholesterol↗

PubMed1998

The role of reduced fat diets and fat substitutes in the regulation of energy and fat intake and body weight.

The suggested link between a high intake of dietary fat and obesity has led to a proliferation on the market of reduced fat foods. The preceding year has seen the publication of more long-term studies investigating the effects of reduced fat and fat substituted foods on energy intake, fat intake and body weight. Effects on the proportion of the diet consumed as fat are encouraging (with most studies showing a decrease towards dietary recommendations), whilst effects on energy intake and body weight remain equivocal.

Body Weight↗

PubMed1991

Physiological response of mature rats to replacement of dietary fat with a fat substitute.

The effects of replacing dietary fat with a fat substitute on food intake, body composition and lipid metabolism were examined in rats. Female Sprague-Dawley rats (250 g) were fed diets containing between 2 and 63% of energy as fat for 64 d. Inclusion of a substitute resulted in diets of different fat content but similar texture. When 10% corn oil (21% kJ-fat diet) was replaced with the substitute supplemented with linoleic acid (2% kJ-fat diet), rats increased food intake so that there was no effect on energy intake, body weight, body composition or serum lipid profile. Rats fed a diet containing 10% corn oil and 30% Crisco vegetable shortening (63% kJ-fat diet) became obese and hyperinsulinemic. When half (51% kJ-fat diet) or all (30% kJ-fat diet) of the Crisco was replaced with the fat substitute, the rats increased food intake and were fatter than controls but less obese than rats fed the 63% kJ-fat diet. Hepatic lipid oxidation and ketone synthesis were proportional to the percentage of dietary energy as fat. Adipocyte de novo lipid synthesis was inhibited by 51% kJ-fat and 63% kJ-fat diets. Partial or total replacement of Crisco prevented the hyperinsulinemia observed in 63% kJ-fat rats, suggesting a protective effect against the development of insulin resistance with diet-induced obesity.

Animals↗

PubMed1997

Sensory properties of a nonabsorbable fat substitute did not affect regulation of energy intake.

Many reduced-fat foods retain the sensory properties of their high-fat counterparts through the use of fat substitutes. This study examined whether regulation of energy intake is affected when the nonabsorbable fat substitute olestra is used to uncouple the sensory properties of fat from fat absorption and metabolism. Cream of broccoli soups were developed in three versions: fat-free, fat-free+olestra (33.3 g olestra), and high-fat (33.3 g fat) (923900 and 2150 kJ per serving, respectively). The olestra soup had the nutrient composition of the fat-free soup but the sensory properties of the high-fat soup. Subjects were grouped by sex, body weight, and dietary restraint (total n = 67). Subjects had either no preload (control) or a soup preload (465 g) followed by a self-selection lunch. Intake was measured at lunch, dinner, snack, and breakfast. At lunch, the response to the soup preloads was not affected by sex, dietary restraint, or body weight. Energy intake (soup+lunch) was significantly greater in the high-fat than in the control condition (P < 0.05), but energy intake in the fat-free and olestra-soup conditions was not significantly different from that in the control condition (3570, 3352, 3464, and 4457 kJ in control, fat-free, olestra, and high-fat soup conditions, respectively). Thus, subjects compensated completely for the energy in the fat-free and olestra soups but not for the energy in the high-fat soup. No differences were found in the response to the two fat-free conditions, one with the fatty taste and one without. In this study the sensory properties of fat alone, ie, apart from the physiologic effects of fat, did not affect energy regulation.

Absorption↗

PubMed1993

Effects of a nonenergy fat substitute on children's energy and macronutrient intake.

To determine whether children adjusted their energy intake in response to covert manipulations in the proportion of energy from dietary fat, 24-h food intake of 29 2- to 5-y-old children was measured over four 2-d blocks. In this within-subject crossover design, in the first three meals of the first day of each block, children consumed foods containing dietary fat or a nonenergy fat substitute, which provided 10% of total daily energy intake. Children compensated for the missing energy; cumulative energy intake differed by only 100 kJ over 2 d. Substitution for dietary fat reduced the percent of energy from fat from 38.7% to 36.4%. Children's intake at individual meals was highly variable (mean CV 24.7%) relative to the variability of total daily energy intake (CV = 8.6%). To produce this pattern, children adjusted energy intake across successive meals. Use of a fat substitute at 10% of energy from dietary fat did not significantly reduce 24-h energy intake.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed1990

Fat substitutes.

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Dietary Fats, Unsaturated↗

PubMed1993

Effect of fat substitutes, sucrose polyester and tricarballylate triester, on digitoxin absorption in the rat.

The effect of non-absorbable fat substitutes (sucrose polyester (SPE) and tricarballylate triester (TCTE)) on [3H]digitoxin intestinal absorption was studied in the rat using a small intestine in-situ perfusion technique. The effect of SPE and TCTE was compared with that of sunflower oil, oleic acid, and saline. After 120 min perfusion, 5% SPE emulsion significantly reduced (P < 0.001) digitoxin absorption compared with all other treated groups. Five per cent TCTE emulsion had a less marked effect than SPE (P = 0.0002) and did not differ from sunflower oil. No difference was found between saline and 5% oleate emulsion, which did not reduce digitoxin absorption compared with other treated groups (P < 0.02). When taurocholic acid and lipase were added, results for the saline-, TCTE-, and SPE-treated groups were similar to those above, but the sunflower oil-treated group showed significantly enhanced (P < 0.01) digitoxin absorption. Thin-layer chromatography of the lipid phases showed hydrolysis of sunflower oil in the presence of taurocholic acid and lipase, but not of TCTE or SPE. The inhibitory effect of the non-absorbable fat substitutes on digitoxin absorption could be related to drug sequestration by the persistent oil phase constituted by the undigested and then unabsorbed fat substitutes. That part of digitoxin dissolved in the undigested oil phase is consequently unavailable for intestinal absorption.

Animals↗

PubMed1992

Potential impact of sugar and fat substitutes in American diet.

Nonnutritive sweeteners and fat substitutes have achieved rapid consumer acceptance. This is largely due to the perception held by the public that these products are helpful in weight control and diet improvement. The cognitive component in human eating behavior makes it difficult to generalize from animal research. The effectiveness of these products in weight control has yet to be demonstrated conclusively in human research. Currently these products appear to add palatibility to reduced-calorie diets and may be helpful to weight-loss efforts as part of an overall balanced, nutritious diet and healthy life-style that includes exercise.

Body Weight↗

PubMed1995

Inhibition of colchicine absorption by the fat substitutes, sucrose polyester and tricarballylate triester, in the rat.

The effect of non-absorbable fat substitutes (sucrose polyester (SPE) and tricarballylate triester (TCTE)) on the enterohepatic circulation of colchicine was studied in the rat. In a first experiment, emulsions of either sunflower oil (SFO), SPE, or TCTE, were introduced into the ligated small intestine and compared to a control group receiving physiological saline. All the groups received colchicine as an intravenous bolus. The plasma levels of colchicine in all groups was not affected, and luminal samples indicated that SPE and TCTE have no influence on the biliary excretion of colchicine (a previous experiment in bile duct-cannulated rats showed that SPE and TCTE, introduced by intragastric tube, have no effect on bile flow rate). In a second experiment, colchicine diluted in bile was mixed with saline or emulsions of either SFO, SPE or TCTE, and introduced into the ligated small intestine. The area under the curve and the maximal plasma concentration of colchicine were reduced when the drug was mixed with SPE or TCTE rather than saline (p < 0.0005). After 150 min, luminal samples were taken and showed significantly higher (p < 0.034) concentrations of colchicine in both SPE and TCTE groups compared to the saline group, indicating a significant inhibition of reabsorption of biliary colchicine. In conclusion, the non-absorbable fat substitutes, SPE and TCTE, did not influence biliary excretion of colchicine but reduced its reabsorption, thus altering its enterohepatic circulation.

Animals↗

PubMed1997

Review and analysis of the effects of olestra, a dietary fat substitute, on gastrointestinal function and symptoms.

Olestra, a dietary fat substitute, was recently made available to consumers in savory snacks in three cities. Early reports of gastrointestinal complaints attributed to olestra attracted media coverage and fostered confusion among physicians and consumers about the nature of olestra and its effects on the digestive system. We reviewed all published studies of olestra's gastrointestinal effects and all relevant unpublished studies submitted to the Food and Drug Administration. Each study was analyzed by a group of expert gastroenterologists and epidemiologists. The symptoms reported with olestra ingestion are similar to those reported with ingestion of fiber and sorbitol, although the mechanisms involved in changing stool characteristics differ among these food additives. Olestra's effects on stool habit and characteristics are due to its presence in the stool. Large amounts are more likely to induce gastrointestinal symptoms than small amounts. There is no evidence that olestra induces pathological change in bowel function: there is no increased fluid or electrolyte nor is there altered gastrointestinal motility or microflora. Olestra and triglyceride ingestion resulted in a similar frequency of symptoms in normal adults and children and in people with chronic inflammatory bowel disease in remission. Olestra traverses the digestive tract intact to become a stool additive. Some subjects develop a change in bowel habit and stool characteristics due to the presence of more olestra in the stool. These changes resemble those associated with ingestion of sorbitol and fiber.

Controlled Clinical Trials as Topic↗

PubMed1994

Cyclosporin absorption is impaired by the fat substitutes, sucrose polyester and tricarballylate triester, in the rat.

The effect of non-absorbable fat substitutes (sucrose polyester (SPE) and tricarballylate triester (TCTE)) on cyclosporin A (CsA) intestinal absorption was studied in the rat using in situ perfusion and gastric intubation techniques. A first experiment using the recirculating intestinal perfusion model showed that emulsions of either 5% SPE or TCTE significantly reduced (p < 0.0008) CsA absorption, whereas no difference was found between results for saline and 5% olive oil emulsion. In single-pass intestinal perfusion experiments SPE dose-dependently inhibited CsA absorption at SPE concentrations of 0.31% (p < 0.0004) and higher. Using gastric intubation, whole blood CsA concentrations significantly decreased when administered with SPE and TCTE in comparison with olive oil (p < 0.04). These results confirm that the CsA fraction dissolved in the undigested oil phase, constituted by the undigested and nonabsorbed fat substitute, is unavailable for intestinal absorption.

Animals↗

PubMed1996

The effect of a non-absorbable fat substitute, sucrose polyester, on gastrointestinal function.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the effects of a single dose of a non-absorbable fat substitute, sucrose polyester, on gastrointestinal function. METHODS: The effects of 50 g of sucrose polyester taken as a single drink on gastric emptying, small bowel transit time (SBTT), whole gut transit time (WGTT) and faecal weight compared with a control fat were examined in double-blind studies. The effect of sucrose polyester on gallbladder ejection fraction and gastrointestinal hormones was also assessed. RESULTS: Sucrose polyester was found to accelerate gastric emptying significantly (98.33 +/- 71.0 vs. 112.92 +/- 82.0 min, P = 0.042) but to slow SBTT (153.75 +/- 36.25 vs. 128.75 +/- 47.39 min. P = 0.006). A trend to faster WGTT (37.47 +/- 15.61 vs. 46.63 +/- 20.65 h) and increased faecal weight was observed (453.33 +/- 122.05 vs. 395.0 +/- 107.85 g/48 h), but this did not reach statistical significance. There was a striking reduction in gallbladder ejection fraction with sucrose polyester (21.69 +/- 25.32 vs. 45.27 +/- 27.67%), P = 0.039) and a corresponding significant decrease in the release of cholecystokinin. Lower levels of motilin and enteroglucagon were also observed. CONCLUSIONS: Sucrose polyester has significant effects on gastrointestinal transit, gallbladder contraction and gastrointestinal hormones. These effects can be explained on the basis of decreased luminal products of digestion and may have implications for the widespread use of sucrose polyester as a fat substitute.

Administration, Oral↗

PubMed1991

Reducing fat intake with fat substitutes.

Many Americans should reduce their dietary consumption of fat to lower their risk of conditions such as heart disease, cancer and obesity. Physicians can coordinate a comprehensive management plan for patients who need to reduce their fat intake. The newest fat substitutes offer a potentially valuable addition to such traditional diet strategies as low-fat foods and total calorie reduction.

Chemical Phenomena↗