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At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed1994

Ball color, eye color, and a reactive motor skill.

Researchers investigating performance differences between light- and dark-eyed individuals have indicated that dark-eyed individuals perform better on reactive activities than light-eyed individuals. College students (61 men, 64 women) performed a forehand rally with different colored racquetballs. Eye color, sex, and total hits were recorded for each subject. Men scored significantly better with balls of each color than did women. Dark-eyed men performed better than other subjects and performance was better with blue balls than yellow or green balls.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1985

The relationship of immediate pigment darkening to minimal erythemal dose, skin type, and eye color.

Immediate pigment darkening (IPD) was recorded in over 1,300 volunteers participating in routine sun protection factor (SPF) testing. Medical history obtained included skin type, hair color, eye color, sunburn sensitivity, tanning ability, and current medications. The presence of IPD and the energy needed to produce it were recorded immediately following exposure to a filtered 2500 W xenon are solar simulator. Minimal erythemal dose (MED) values were recorded 16-24 hours post-exposure. The average MED was lowest for skin type I and highest for skin type IV. The IPD dose was also lowest for skin type I and highest for skin type IV. However, the average IPD dose was greater than the MED for skin type I and lower than the MED for skin type IV. For skin types II and III, the average IPD dose and MED were almost equivalent. For skin type I, 64% required equivalent or greater energy to produce IPD than their MED, and 30% showed no IPD at energy levels sufficient to produce erythema, whereas all skin type IV's had a measurable IPD response. For volunteers of skin type II and III showing no measurable IPD, the predominant eye color was blue or green (74%). Sunscreen usage altered the IPD response for all 4 skin types.

Dose-Response Relationship, Radiation↗
PubMed1997

Transient expression of the Drosophila melanogaster cinnabar gene rescues eye color in the white eye (WE) strain of Aedes aegypti.

The lack of eye pigment in the Aedes aegypti WE (white eye) colony was confirmed to be due to a mutation in the kynurenine hydroxylase gene, which catalyzes one of the steps in the metabolic synthesis of ommochrome eye pigments. Partial restoration of eye color (orange to red phenotype) in pupae and adults occurred in both sexes when first or second instar larvae were reared in water containing 3-hydroxykynurenine, the metabolic product of the enzyme kynurenine hydroxylase. No eye color restoration was observed when larvae were reared in water containing kynurenine sulfate, the precursor of 3-hydroxykynurenine in the ommochrome synthesis pathway. In addition, a plasmid clone containing the wild type Drosophila melanogaster gene encoding kynurenine hydroxylase, cinnabar (cn), was also able to complement the kynurenine hydroxylase mutation when it was injected into embryos of the A. aegypti WE strain. The ability to complement this A. aegypti mutant with the transiently expressed D. melanogaster cinnabar gene supports the value of this gene as a transformation reporter for use with A. aegypti WE and possibly other Diptera with null mutations in the kynurenine hydroxylase gene.

Aedes↗
PubMed2002

P gene as an inherited biomarker of human eye color.

Human pigmentation, including eye color, has been associated with skin cancer risk. The P gene is the human homologue to the mouse pink-eye dilution locus and is responsible for oculocutaneous albinism type 2 and other phenotypes that confer eye hypopigmentation. The P gene is located on chromosome 15q11.2-q12, which is also the location of a putative eye pigmentation gene (EYCL3) inferred to exist by linkage analysis. Therefore, the P gene is a strong candidate for determination of human eye color. Using a sample of 629 normally pigmented individuals, we found that individuals were less likely to have blue or gray eyes if they had P gene variants Arg305Trp (P = 0.002), Arg419Gln (P = 0.001), or the combination of both variants (P = 0.003). These results suggest that P gene, in part, determines normal phenotypic variation in human eye color and may therefore represent an inherited biomarker of cutaneous cancer risk.

Carrier Proteins↗
PubMed1977

Eye color in skin cancer.

In Spain, 2175 patients with skin disease were studied for eye color; 425 had skin cancer and 1750 had other skin conditions. Of the skin cancer patients, 359 had light-colored eyes (blue, green, gray or light brown). Of the others, 60% had dark-colored eyes (black or dark brown).

Eye Color↗
PubMed1987

Major genes of eye color and hair color linked to LU and SE.

Eye color and hair color were studied in a large Danish family material, tested earlier for a comprehensive set of genetic marker systems. We found strong evidence for linkage of "green eye color" or GEY to the Lutheran-Secretor systems (combined lod score 9.19). This would appear to identify a major gene with influence towards "green eye color". We also found evidence for linkage of GEY to "brown hair color" or BRHC (lod score 5.06), which would appear to identify a second major gene influence in the same region of chromosome 19. Concerning the obvious association in the general population between eye color and hair color which could imitate linkage if it were reflected within sibships, we did not recognize any such intrafamilial association; in the pooled informative sibships GEY and BRHC were independently distributed (as were LU-SE and GEY).

ABO Blood-Group System↗
PubMed1997

Eye color changes past early childhood. The Louisville Twin Study.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether eye color changes after 6 years of age. DESIGN: Longitudinal data on eye color were obtained from the Louisville Twin Study, Louisville, Ky. Twins (n = 1513 [individuals]) were assessed at least once and most twins (n = 1386) were examined on 2 or more occasions. Parents of twins were also examined at the study inception, 128 of whom were assessed again from February 1989 to October 1993. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Eye color was assessed at each examination by matching the iridial coloration of the subject to 1 of 15 painted glass eye anterior segments, similar to those in artificial eyes, mounted on a circular disk. The spectrum ranged from light blue (1) to dark brown (15). RESULTS: Among whites (n = 1359), the eye color of 3.8% to 8.6% of the sample twins became 2 U or more darker or 2 U or more lighter during 3- to 9-year intervals between 6 years of age and adulthood (> 18 years, < 24 years). Among identical (monozygotic) twin pairs, there was a high degree of concordance in eye color (r = 0.98 [P < .001]), while in fraternal (dizygotic) twin pairs, the concordance was less pronounced (r = 0.49) and decreased with age (r = 0.07). Among the sample of the mothers of twins, 9% had irides that lightened by 2 U or more during the follow-up period. CONCLUSION: Most individuals achieve stable eye color by 6 years of age. However, a subpopulation of 10% to 15% of white subjects have changes in eye color throughout adolescence and adulthood in the eye color range that can be expected to reflect changes in iridial melanin content or distribution. These data also suggest that such changes in eye color, or the propensity to such changes, may be genetically determined.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Replicated linkage for eye color on 15q using comparative ratings of sibling pairs.

: The aim of the study was to perform a genetic linkage analysis for eye color, for comparative data. Similarity in eye color of mono- and dizygotic twins was rated by the twins' mother, their father and/or the twins themselves. For 4,748 twin pairs the similarity in eye color was available on a three point scale ("not at all alike"-"somewhat alike"-"completely alike"), absolute eye color on individuals was not assessed. The probability that twins were alike for eye color was calculated as a weighted average of the different responses of all respondents on several different time points. The mean probability of being alike for eye color was 0.98 for MZ twins (2,167 pairs), whereas the mean probability for DZ twins was 0.46 (2,537 pairs), suggesting very high heritability for eye color. For 294 DZ twin pairs genome-wide marker data were available. The probability of being alike for eye color was regressed on the average amount of IBD sharing. We found a peak LOD-score of 2.9 at chromosome 15q, overlapping with the region recently implicated for absolute ratings of eye color in Australian twins [Zhu, G., Evans, D. M., Duffy, D. L., Montgomery, G. W., Medland, S. E., Gillespie, N. A., Ewen, K. R., Jewell, M., Liew, Y. W., Hayward, N. K., Sturm, R. A., Trent, J. M., and Martin, N. G. (2004). Twin Res. 7:197-210] and containing the OCA2 gene, which is the major candidate gene for eye color [Sturm, R. A. Teasdale, R. D, and Box, N. F. (2001). Gene 277:49-62]. Our results demonstrate that comparative measures on relatives can be used in genetic linkage analysis.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Altered expression of a novel adaptin leads to defective pigment granule biogenesis in the Drosophila eye color mutant garnet.

Drosophila eye pigmentation defects have thus far been attributed to mutations in genes encoding enzymes required for biosynthesis of pigments and to ABC-type membrane transporters for pigments or their precursors. We report here that a defect in a gene encoding a putative coat adaptor protein leads to the eye color defect of garnet mutants. We first identified a human cDNA encoding delta-adaptin, a structural homolog of the alpha- and gamma-adaptin subunits of the clathrin coat adaptors AP-1 and AP-2, respectively. Biochemical analyses demonstrated that delta-adaptin is a component of the adaptor-like complex AP-3 in human cells. We then isolated a full-length cDNA encoding the Drosophila ortholog of delta-adaptin and found that transcripts specified by this cDNA are altered in garnet mutant flies. Examination by light and electron microscopy indicated that these mutant flies have reduced numbers of eye pigment granules, which correlates with decreased levels of both pteridine (red) and ommachrome (brown) pigments. Thus, the eye pigmentation defect in the Drosophila garnet mutant may be attributed to compromised function of a coat protein involved in intracellular transport processes required for biogenesis or function of pigment granules.

Adaptor Protein Complex alpha Subunits↗
PubMed2003

Eye color as an indicator of social rank in the fish Nile tilapia.

We investigated the association of eye color with the dominant-subordinate relationship in the fish Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus. Eye color pattern was also examined in relation to the intensity of attacks. We paired 20 size-matched fish (intruder: 73.69 11.49 g; resident: 75.42 8.83 g) and evaluated eye color and fights. These fish were isolated in individual aquaria for 10 days and then their eye color was measured 5 min before pairing (basal values). Twenty minutes after pairing, eye color and fights were quantified for 10 min. Clear establishment of social hierarchy was observed in 7 of 10 pairs of fish. Number of attacks ranged from 1 to 168 among pairs. The quartile was calculated for these data and the pairs were then divided into two classes: low-attack (1 to 111 attacks - 2 lower quartiles) or high-attack (112 to 168 attacks - 2 higher quartiles). Dominance decreased the eye-darkening patterns of the fish after pairing, while subordinance increased darkening compared to dominance. Subordinate fish in low-attack confrontations presented a darker eye compared to dominant fish and to the basal condition. We also observed a paler eye pattern in dominants that shared low-attack interactions after pairing compared to the subordinates and within the group. However, we found no differences in the darkening pattern between dominants and subordinates from the high-attack groups. We conclude that eye color is associated with social rank in this species. Moreover, the association between eye color and social rank in the low-attack pairs may function to reduce aggression.

Aggression↗
PubMed2004

A genome scan for eye color in 502 twin families: most variation is due to a QTL on chromosome 15q.

We have rated eye color on a 3-point scale (1 = blue/grey, 2 = hazel/green, 3 = brown) in 502 twin families and carried out a 5-10 cM genome scan (400-757 markers). We analyzed eye color as a threshold trait and performed multipoint sib pair linkage analysis using variance components analysis in Mx. A lod of 19.2 was found at the marker D15S1002, less than 1 cM from OCA2, which has been previously implicated in eye color variation. We estimate that 74% of variance in eye color liability is due to this QTL and a further 18% due to polygenic effects. However, a large shoulder on this peak suggests that other loci affecting eye color may be telomeric of OCA2 and inflating the QTL estimate. No other peaks reached genome-wide significance, although lods > 2 were seen on 5p and 14q and lods >1 were additionally seen on chromosomes 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 17 and 18. Most of these secondary peaks were reduced or eliminated when we repeated the scan as a two locus analysis with the 15q linkage included, although this does not necessarily exclude them as false positives. We also estimated the interaction between the 15q QTL and the other marker locus but there was only minor evidence for additive x additive epistasis. Elaborating the analysis to the full two-locus model including non-additive main effects and interactions did not strengthen the evidence for epistasis. We conclude that most variation in eye color in Europeans is due to polymorphism in OCA2 but that there may be modifiers at several other loci.

Chromosomes, Human, Pair 15↗
PubMed2001

Eye color and cutaneous nevi predict risk of ocular melanoma in Australia.

Ethnicity, cutaneous nevi and eye color are generally accepted risk factors for melanoma of the eye, although case-control studies have produced conflicting results. We sought to determine the constitutional risk factors for melanomas of the choroid, ciliary body, iris and conjunctiva in Australia. A population-based case-control study was conducted, with case ascertainment from a prospective national incidence survey and randomly selected community controls. Two hundred and ninety cases aged 18-79 years and diagnosed between 1st January 1996 and 31st July 1998 were enrolled with 916 controls frequency matched by age, sex and State or Territory of residence. Risk of choroidal and ciliary body melanoma (n = 246) was increased in people with grey (OR 2.9, 95% CI 1.5-5.5), hazel (OR 2.2, 95% CI 1.4-3.7) and blue eyes (OR 1.7, 95% CI 1.0-2.7) compared with brown eyes. Risk was also increased in those with 4 or more nevi on their back, those unable to tan, and those who squinted when outdoors as a child. Risk was reduced in people born other than in Australia and New Zealand (OR 0.7, 95% CI 0.5-1.0). Non-brown eye color was a risk factor for iris melanoma (n = 25). No risk factors were identified for conjunctival melanoma (n = 19). Eye color is the strongest constitutional predictor of choroidal and ciliary body melanoma, and may indicate a protective effect of melanin density at these sites. An independent association with cutaneous nevi suggests a role for other genetic factors.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1980

Sex, eye-color, and aesthetic ratings of colors.

42 subjects provided aesthetic ratings of 10 pure hues and 36 of 8 complex colors. Sex differences appeared in both experiments, while significant differences in ratings associated with the subject's eye-color (blue versus brown) appeared only for some complex colors (both as a main effect and in interaction with sex and language factors). The interaction of sex and rated color with subjects' eye-color creates difficulties in the interpretation of effects of eye-color.

Choice Behavior↗
PubMed2002

Cloning and characterization of the Tribolium castaneum eye-color genes encoding tryptophan oxygenase and kynurenine 3-monooxygenase.

The use of eye-color mutants and their corresponding genes as scorable marker systems has facilitated the development of transformation technology in Drosophila and other insects. In the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum, the only currently available system for germline transformation employs the exogenous marker gene, EGFP, driven by an eye-specific promoter. To exploit the advantages offered by eye-pigmentation markers, we decided to develop a transformant selection system for Tribolium on the basis of mutant rescue. The Tribolium orthologs of the Drosophila eye-color genes vermilion (tryptophan oxygenase) and cinnabar (kynurenine 3-monooxygenase) were cloned and characterized. Conceptual translations of Tc vermilion (Tcv) and Tc cinnabar (Tccn) are 71 and 51% identical to their respective Drosophila orthologs. We used RNA interference (RNAi) to show that T. castaneum larvae lacking functional Tcv or Tccn gene products also lack the pigmented eyespots observed in wild-type larvae. Five available eye-color mutations were tested for linkage to Tcv or Tccn via recombinational mapping. No linkage was found between candidate mutations and Tccn. However, tight linkage was found between Tcv and the white-eye mutation white, here renamed vermilion(white) (v(w)). Molecular analysis indicates that 80% of the Tcv coding region is deleted in v(w) beetles. These observations suggest that the Tribolium eye is pigmented only by ommochromes, not pteridines, and indicate that Tcv is potentially useful as a germline transformation marker.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

The association between eye color and corneal sensitivity measured using a Belmonte esthesiometer.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study is to determine the association between corneal sensitivity measured using a pneumatic esthesiometer and eye color quantified objectively. METHODS: Twenty subjects had ocular surface sensitivity measured using a Belmonte esthesiometer. An ascending method of limits followed by the method of constant stimuli were used to estimate 1) cold detection thresholds, 2) discomfort detection thresholds (both using pneumatic stimuli at 20 degrees C, 3) mechanical detection thresholds using pneumatic stimuli at 50 degrees C (ocular surface temperature approximately 33 degrees C), and 4) percent CO2 chemical detection thresholds using 50 degrees C pneumatic stimuli at flow rates set at half of each subject's pneumatic detection threshold (therefore detected by the chemical content and not the mechanical content). Eye color was estimated 1) clinically by two observers ranking the color (light to dark) of digital images of each subject's iris, 2) photometrically by measuring iris luminance, and 3) using chromaticity obtained from a Photo Research 650 spectroradiometer with controlled illumination. Correlation and linear and nonlinear regression analyses were used to examine relationships between variables. RESULTS: There were no associations between eye color (determined clinically or objectively) for mechanical and chemical detection thresholds (best r = 0.15, all p > 0.05). There was a significant linear association between 20 degrees detection thresholds and eye color (r = 0.39), which was substantially improved with a two-line function (part level and part increasing linearly, r = 0.65). CONCLUSIONS: We were generally unable to demonstrate the relationship between eye color and sensitivity reported previously using a Cochet-Bonnet esthesiometer. However, for a subset of subjects with palest irises, there appears to be a linear association between eye color and sensitivity to cooling stimuli.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Is eye color a predictor of noise-induced hearing loss?

This study investigated the hypothesis that eye color is related to permanent threshold shift. Hearing levels and eye color determinations (gray, blue, hazel, and brown) were obtained for 100 industrial employees. Discriminant function analyses were utilized to attempt to establish linear combinations of variables that would identify group membership (i.e., eye color) correctly. Linear combinations of variables were not effective in delineating group membership. Probabililty statistics were then utilized to evaluate the probability of the determined relationships. These results indicated predictive accuracy of 69% for blue-eyed workers and 59% for brown-eyed workers.

Adult↗
PubMed1984

Eye color as a predictor of outcomes in behavior therapy.

Eye color research has centered primarily on the dimension of self-paced vs. reactive performance. Self-paced activities are those in which the individual may initiate the activity when he/she chooses while the stimulus situation remains relatively constant. Reactive activities must be initiated at the precise time dictated by a rapidly changing stimulus situation. The present study examined the relationship between outcomes of behaviorally oriented treatment for children (N = 366) and eye color. The findings were consistent with theoretical expectations: Dark-eyed children and teenagers responded better to reactive treatment programs than their light-eyed counterparts, while the reverse was true for self-paced treatment programs. Implications for research and practice were discussed.

Adolescent↗