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At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed2000

Enterovirus infections with special reference to enterovirus 71.

The enteroviruses comprise a large group of immunologically distinct serotypes of viruses belonging to the family of Picornaviridae. Many enteroviruses cause diseases in human, but the infections are generally mild as asymptomatic, therefore, enteroviruses are considered to be unimportant as human pathogens. However, enteroviruses may also result in serious or even fatal disease (as shown in the enterovirus 71 (EV71) epidemic in Taiwan in 1998). There are three types of polioviruses, Coxsackievirus group A and group B viruses, and echoviruses group. All together a total of 67 types are available. Starting from enterovirus type 68 to 71, they are named as enterovirus types. Enterovirus type 72 is hepatitis A virus. Paralytic disease of poliomyelitis was recorded in ancient time but characterization of poliovirus was not reported until the turn of the 19th century that poliomyelitis was a viral disease. The major breakthrough for diagnosing and controlling of poliomyelitis was the discovery that poliovirus can be propagated in human embryonic tissues in cultures. As soon as cultures of human and monkey cells began to use for isolating polioviruses in stool specimen of patients, more unknown viruses were isolated which unlike polioviruses nor Coxsackie viruses; they were called "orphan" viruses or human enteric viruses, name later simplified to "echoviruses". Morphologically all enteroviruses are alike. They are small, ether insensitive viruses with an RNA genome. Their nucleic acid is single stranded, and the nucleocapsid has a cubic (icosahedral) symmetry, and is naked. The host ranges of enteroviruses vary greatly from one type to the next and even among strains of the same type. Polioviruses have a very restricted host range among laboratory animals. Virus isolation is the best method for diagnosis of enterovirus infection, but infection in the central nervous system (CNS) may be detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Currently final identification and serotyping of enteroviruses are by indirect immunofluorescent tests using monoclonal antibody or by neutralization test using antiserum pools described by Lim and Benyesh-Melnick. The incidence and prevalence of diseases associated with the enterovirus infections are varied. The circulation of enteroviruses recently in Tainan and the epidemic of EV71 in Taiwan in 1998 are described in this review. Although poliovirus infection may be eradicated from the world due to the efficient vaccination program, there is no specific antiviral agents for either treatment or prevention for other enterovirus infections. In 1991, a new antiviral "pleconaril" which is a novel orally bioavailable and systematically acting small molecule inhibitor for picornaviruses. "Pleconaril" is currently in clinical trials for treatment of enterovirus meningitis and respiratory infections.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Detection of infectious enteroviruses, enterovirus genomes, somatic coliphages, and Bacteroides fragilis phages in treated wastewater.

In this study, three types of treated wastewater were tested for infectious enteroviruses, the enterovirus genome, somatic coliphages, and Bacteroides fragilis phages. The aim of this work was to determine whether the presence of the two types of bacteriophages or of the enterovirus genome was a good indicator of infectious enterovirus contamination. The enterovirus genome was detected by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Infectious enteroviruses were quantified by cell culturing (BGM cells), and the bacteriophages were quantified by plaque formation on the host bacterium (Escherichia coli or B. fragilis) in agar medium. Forty-eight samples of treated wastewater were analyzed. Sixteen samples had been subjected to a secondary treatment for 8 to 12 h (A), 16 had been subjected to a secondary treatment for 30 h (B1), and 16 had been subjected to both secondary and tertiary treatments (B2). The mean concentrations of somatic coliphages were 4.9 x 10(4) PFU . liter-1 for treatment line A, 9.8 x 10(3) PFU . liter-1 for B1, and 1.4 x 10(3) PFU . liter-1 for B2, with all the samples testing positive (100%). The mean concentrations of B. fragilis phages were 1.7 x 10(3) PFU . liter-1 for A (100% positive samples), 17 to 24 PFU . liter-1 for B1 (44% positive samples), and 0.8 to 13 PFU . liter-1 for B2 (6% positive samples). The mean concentrations of infectious enteroviruses were 4 most probable number of cytopathogenic units (MPNCU) . liter-1 for A (31% positive samples) and <1 MPNCU . liter-1 for B1 and B2 (0% positive samples). The percentages of samples testing positive for the enterovirus genome were 100% for A, 56% for B1, and 19% for B2. The percentages of samples testing positive for the enterovirus genome were significantly higher than those for infectious enteroviruses. This finding may have been due to the presence of noninfectious enteroviruses or to the presence of infectious enteroviruses that do not multiply in BGM cell cultures. However, under our experimental conditions, nondetection of the genome implies the absence of infectious viruses. There was a significant correlation between the concentration of somatic coliphages or B. fragilis phages and the presence of infectious enteroviruses or the presence of the enterovirus genome. However, the somatic coliphage concentration did not lead to fluctuations in the infectious enterovirus concentration, whereas the B. fragilis phage concentration did.

Bacteriophages↗
PubMed2003

Detection of somatic phages, infectious enteroviruses and enterovirus genomes as indicators of human enteric viral pollution in surface water.

In the present study, we aimed to determine whether the concentrations of somatic coliphages, infectious enteroviruses or the detection of enterovirus genomes were associated with the detection of human pathogenic viruses in surface water. Four French rivers were sampled monthly or semimonthly for the quantitative detection of somatic coliphages, infectious enteroviruses and the qualitative RT-PCR detection of enterovirus, hepatitis A virus, Norwalk I viruses, Norwalk II viruses, astrovirus and rotavirus genomes over 12 months. All the 68 water samples tested were positive for the quantitative detection of somatic coliphages (range of concentrations: 4 x 10(2) to 1.6 x10(5) FUl(-1)). Infectious enteroviruses were isolated by a cell culture system in only two (3%) of the 68 concentrated water samples tested, whereas enterovirus genomes were detectable in 60 (88%) of the same samples. A positive RT-PCR detection of the genome of hepatitis A virus, Norwalk-like virus genogroup II, astrovirus, rotavirus and Norwalk-like virus genogroup I was demonstrated, respectively, in 1.5% (1/68), 1.5% (1/68), 3% (2/68), 0% and 0% of the 68 concentrated water samples tested. All of these four water samples were positive for the detection of enterovirus genomes, whereas only one of them was positive for the isolation of enteroviruses on cell culture. Moreover, the genomic detection of human pathogenic viruses appeared not to be statistically associated with the concentration levels of somatic coliphages in the 68 concentrated water samples tested (Wilcoxon rank test; P=0.14). Taken together, our findings indicate that the quantitative detection of somatic coliphages and the isolation of enteroviruses on cell culture are not suitable parameters for the control of the viral contamination in surface water, whereas the detection of enterovirus genomes may be useful for predicting the presence of waterborne viruses.

Cell Culture Techniques↗
PubMed1998

Development of an enterovirus specific PCR method for the quantification of enterovirus genomes in blood of diabetes patients.

BACKGROUND: Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus or type 1 diabetes is a disease with a diverse aetiology. Epidemiological studies examining newly diagnosed, recent onset IDDM patients have suggested a role for viruses in the aetiology of IDDM (Yoon, 1995, Diabetes/Metabolism Reviews 11, 83-107). Important candidates are the enteroviruses, in particular coxsackieviruses B3 and B4. The latter can cause diabetes in animals (Clements et al., 1995, Lancet 346, 221-223). OBJECTIVES: We have developed a quantitative PCR method for the detection of enterovirus genomes in biological samples. The quantitative PCR will be used to screen for enteroviruses in blood of diabetes patients and their relatives by testing a Blood Diabetes Register. STUDY DESIGN: A substantial amount of data has been collected on enterovirus induced IDDM, our study is original in so far as it will be: (1) a quantitative study, not only the presence of viral genome sequences in blood will be determined, but also their concentrations (viral load); and (2) a longitudinal study, samples are and will be collected as a function of time. Positive PCR samples will be quantified using the standard addition method. RESULTS: The test is specific for enteroviruses, since all enteroviruses were detected with equal sensitivity. Viruses belonging to other picornavirus genera scored negative (even up to 3 x 10(6) genome copies). An equal detection limit of 10 genome copies was found for all enteroviruses. CONCLUSIONS: The developed method will permit us to generate quantitative and longitudinal data of enterovirus genomes in blood of diabetes patients and their relatives, which might help in the elucidation of the relationship between enteroviruses and IDDM.

Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1↗
PubMed1998

Enterovirus infections and enterovirus specific T-cell responses in infancy.

The development of enterovirus specific T-cell and antibody responses were examined in a cohort of 60 healthy infants at the ages of 3, 6, 9, and 12 months. By the age of 6 months, 68% of the infants had developed T-cell responses against enterovirus antigens by lymphocyte proliferation test, whereas only 30% had serological evidence of an enterovirus infection. By this age, only 7% of the infants had adenovirus specific T-cell responses and 3% had serologically verified adenovirus infection. Enterovirus specific T-cell responses correlated with the lack of enterovirus antibodies in cord blood and the number of sibs reflecting protection by maternal antibodies and the rate of exposures, respectively. T-cell responses cross-reacted between different enterovirus serotypes. The results show that enterovirus infections occur frequently in infancy and induce T-cell immunity. Cellular immunity may be a more sensitive indicator of neonatal enterovirus infections than antibodies.

Antibodies, Viral↗
PubMed1993

Rapid diagnosis of enterovirus infection by magnetic bead extraction and polymerase chain reaction detection of enterovirus RNA in clinical specimens.

We describe a rapid method for extraction and detection of enterovirus RNA in clinical samples. By using magnetic bead technology, enterovirus RNA was efficiently and rapidly extracted from cerebrospinal fluid, stool, saliva, blood, pericardial fluid, urine, and cryopreserved or formalin-fixed solid tissue. Enterovirus RNA was then detected by reverse transcription followed by polymerase chain reaction amplification with primers designed to allow detection of most enterovirus serotypes. For detection of enteroviruses in specimens from patients with acute enteroviral disease, the overall sensitivity of enzymatic RNA amplification was greater than that of cell culture isolation, especially in blood specimens and in stool specimens from patients with acute cardiac disease. Enterovirus RNA was also detected in cryopreserved and archival formalin-fixed myocardial tissue from patients with acute myocarditis and chronic dilated cardiomyopathy. The ability to study archival specimens is of particular value in conducting retrospective investigation. The RNA extraction procedure used was considerably faster than extraction methods using organic reagents, used less hazardous reagents, and was of similar sensitivity. This detection protocol may therefore be useful both for the diagnosis of enterovirus infection and in studying the pathogenesis of acute and chronic enterovirus-induced disease.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Incorrect identification of recent Asian strains of Coxsackievirus A16 as human enterovirus 71: improved primers for the specific detection of human enterovirus 71 by RT PCR.

BACKGROUND: Human enterovirus 71 has emerged as an important pathogen in the Asia Pacific region and it is important to be able to make a rapid and specific diagnosis for outbreak control. Recent Asian strains of Coxsackievirus A16 have changes in the VP1 gene which causes mispriming of widely used primers for human enterovirus 71 specific identification. METHODS: Local strains of Coxsackievirus A16 were sequenced in the VP4 and VP1 genes and using sequence alignment tools, an improved set of primers were designed for specific identification of human enterovirus 71. These primers were evaluated against virus isolates as well as primary clinical specimens. RESULTS: A total of 218 virus strains were tested. All 39 human enterovirus 71 isolates were positive and none of the 38 Coxsackievirus A16, 127 other enteroviruses and 14 prototype flaviviruses and adenoviruses were positive when tested with the new primers. When aliquots of primary specimens known to have yielded human enterovirus 71 were retrospectively tested, we found that within 2 months of collection of the specimens, greater than 90% were positive but that the success rate diminished rapidly to 18% after 2 years storage. CONCLUSIONS: Our new primers will be useful in rapid diagnosis of human enterovirus 71 infection, and can also be used as a screening tool in surveillance programmes for early warning of human enterovirus 71 transmission.

Asian People↗
PubMed1995

Evaluation of an enterovirus group-specific anti-VP1 monoclonal antibody, 5-D8/1, in comparison with neutralization and PCR for rapid identification of enteroviruses in cell culture.

We evaluated the usefulness of a commercially available monoclonal antibody (MAb) directed against a group-specific epitope of the capsid protein VP1 of enteroviruses for the rapid identification of these viruses in cell culture. The MAb was assayed in an indirect immunofluorescence test with cultured cells infected by various serotypes of enterovirus; all 39 serotypes tested, including echoviruses 22 and 23, which are considered atypical enteroviruses, were reactive. The MAb was also tested with 61 strains recovered from clinical specimens inoculated into cell cultures in comparison with seroneutralization with intersecting pools of hyperimmune sera and PCR with primers from the 5' untranslated region of enteroviruses. There was total agreement between the results obtained with the MAb and those obtained by PCR, even for those strains of enteroviruses which were found to be untypeable with polyclonal antisera. These data demonstrate the usefulness of the MAb for rapid identification of enteroviruses in cell culture.

Antibodies, Monoclonal↗
PubMed2002

Direct detection of enterovirus 71 (EV71) in clinical specimens from a hand, foot, and mouth disease outbreak in Singapore by reverse transcription-PCR with universal enterovirus and EV71-specific primers.

A recent outbreak of hand, foot, and mouth disease in Singapore in 2000 affected several thousand children and resulted in four deaths. The aim of this study was to determine the applicability of reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) with universal pan-enterovirus primers and enterovirus 71 (EV71) type-specific primers for the direct detection of enteroviruses in clinical specimens derived from this outbreak. With the universal primers, EV71 RNA sequences were successfully detected by RT-PCR and direct sequencing in 71% of positive specimens. Three pairs of EV71 type-specific primers were evaluated for rapid detection of EV71 directly from clinical specimens and cell culture isolates. By using a seminested RT-PCR strategy, specific identification of EV71 sequences directly in clinical specimens was achieved, with a detection rate of 53%. In contrast, cell culture could isolate EV71 in only 20% of positive specimens. EV71 was detected directly from brain, heart, and lung specimens of two deceased siblings. Although more than one type of enterovirus was identified in clinical specimens from this outbreak, 90% of the enteroviruses were confirmed as EV71. The data demonstrate the clinical applicability of pan-enterovirus and seminested RT-PCR for the detection of EV71 RNA directly from clinical specimens in an outbreak situation.

Child↗
PubMed2003

Detection of enterovirus capsid protein VP1 in myocardium from cases of myocarditis or dilated cardiomyopathy by immunohistochemistry: further evidence of enterovirus persistence in myocytes.

The association of enteroviruses with myocardial disease has been investigated extensively by molecular biological techniques to detect viral RNA, but remains controversial. This retrospective study investigated the involvement of enterovirus in myocarditis or dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) by detection of viral antigens in myocardial samples from a new patient series using an optimized immunohistochemical technique. Formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded biopsy, autopsy or explanted myocardial tissue samples were obtained from 136 subjects. These comprised histologically proven cases of acute fatal myocarditis (n=10), DCM (n=89, including 10 patients with healing/borderline myocarditis) and a comparison group of samples from 37 unused donor hearts and cases with other conditions. A monoclonal antibody 5-D8/1 directed against a conserved, non-conformational epitope in capsid protein VP1 was employed for broad detection of different enterovirus serotypes. Investigations were performed blindly. Histological sections from 7 of 10 fatal myocarditis cases, 47 of 89 patients (52.8%) with DCM were positive for the viral capsid protein VP1 by immunohistochemical staining. Consecutive sections of positive samples were negative when the antibody was omitted or replaced with subclass- and concentration-matched normal mouse IgG. In contrast, only 3 of 37 samples (8.1%) in the comparison group were positive (Yates corrected chi(2)=19.99, P<0.001: odds ratio =12.68). VP1 staining was distributed in individual or grouped myofibers and localized in the cytoplasm of myocytes. In some cases, VP1 was detected in only a few myofibers within an entire section. These results provide further evidence of enterovirus involvement in a high proportion of DCM cases and demonstrate that VP1 is present in disease stages from acute myocarditis, healing myocarditis to end-stage DCM requiring cardiac transplantation, indicating translation of viral protein during persistent enterovirus infection.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Detection of enterovirus RNA in clinical samples by nested polymerase chain reaction for rapid diagnosis of enterovirus infection.

Employing a nested polymerase chain reaction with primers from the 5' non-translated region of the enterovirus genome, we detected enteroviral RNA from patients with a variety of enterovirus-associated clinical syndromes. This technique was found to be sensitive (detecting enteroviral RNA extracted from 0.1 50% tissue culture infectious dose) and specific; no specific PCR product was detected from RNA extracts of a variety of non-enterovirus isolates. Although the technique is of comparable sensitivity to single round polymerase chain reaction followed by Southern blot hybridization, it was more rapid, since it enabled a diagnosis to be made within 1 day. Thus, using nested polymerase chain reaction we were able to detect enteroviral RNA in 31 of 46 clinical specimens from 17 of 23 patients with suspected enterovirus infections. The samples included cerebrospinal fluid, throat swabs, stool, vesicle fluid, peripheral blood lymphocytes, whole blood and pericardial effusion. In contrast virus was isolated in only 17 of 42 clinical specimens from 12 of 22 these patients. In preliminary studies, restriction endonuclease analysis of polymerase chain reaction products enabled us to distinguish between non-polio enteroviruses and poliovirus types 1, 2, and 3. This additional technique may be useful in distinguishing between such infections in polio-endemic countries where rapid public health measures may be required.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

An epidemic of enterovirus 71 infection in Taiwan. Taiwan Enterovirus Epidemic Working Group.

BACKGROUND: Enteroviruses can cause outbreaks of hand-foot-and-mouth disease (characterized by vesicular lesions on the hands, feet, and oral mucosa) or herpangina, usually without life-threatening manifestations. In 1998 an epidemic of enterovirus 71 infection caused hand-foot-and-mouth disease and herpangina in thousands of people in Taiwan, some of whom died. METHODS: We assessed the epidemiologic aspects of this outbreak. Cases of hand-foot-and-mouth disease or herpangina in ambulatory patients were reported to the Taiwan Department of Health by a mean of 818 sentinel physicians. Severe cases in hospitalized patients were reported by 40 medical centers and regional hospitals. Viruses were isolated by 10 hospital laboratories and the department of health. RESULTS: The sentinel physicians reported 129,106 cases of hand-foot-and-mouth disease or herpangina in two waves of the epidemic, which probably represents less than 10 percent of the estimated total number of cases. There were 405 patients with severe disease, most of whom were five years old or younger; severe disease was seen in all regions of the island. Complications included encephalitis, aseptic meningitis, pulmonary edema or hemorrhage, acute flaccid paralysis, and myocarditis. Seventy-eight patients died, 71 of whom (91 percent) were five years of age or younger. Of the patients who died, 65 (83 percent) had pulmonary edema or pulmonary hemorrhage. Among patients from whom a virus was isolated, enterovirus 71 was present in 48.7 percent of outpatients with uncomplicated hand-foot-and-mouth disease or herpangina, 75 percent of hospitalized patients who survived, and 92 percent of patients who died. CONCLUSIONS: Although several enteroviruses were circulating in Taiwan during the 1998 epidemic, enterovirus 71 infection was associated with most of the serious clinical manifestations and with nearly all the deaths. Most of those who died were young, and the majority died of pulmonary edema and pulmonary hemorrhage.

Child, Preschool↗
PubMed1987

Enterovirus and enterovirus infections.

An account of the nature of enterovirus and enterovirus infections with special reference to experiences encountered in Singapore is presented. The most common of enterovirus epidemic diseases since 1970 is Acute Haemorrhagic Conjunctivitis caused by Coxsackievirus A24 variant and Enterovirus type 70. Enterovirus of various serotypes were isolated from a wide range of illnesses varying in severity throughout the year.

Conjunctivitis, Viral↗
PubMed2003

Comparison of the NucliSens Basic kit (Nucleic Acid Sequence-Based Amplification) and the Argene Biosoft Enterovirus Consensus Reverse Transcription-PCR assays for rapid detection of enterovirus RNA in clinical specimens.

Samples were tested for enterovirus by nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA) (NucliSens Basic kit; BioMerieux), reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) (Enterovirus Consensus RT-PCR kit; Argene Biosoft), and virus isolation. Eighty-two samples were tested, and 44 were positive, 34 by both NASBA and RT-PCR and 5 each by NASBA or RT-PCR only. Two nasopharyngeal samples positive only by RT-PCR were determined to be rhinovirus. Of 42 enterovirus-positive samples, NASBA detected 39 (92.9%) and RT-PCR detected 37 (88.1%). The NucliSens Basic kit and the Argene Biosoft RT-PCR had comparable sensitivities for detection of enterovirus RNA, and both molecular methods were more sensitive than culture, which detected only 60.5% of positive samples. NASBA could be completed in 6.5 h versus 9 h for the Argene Biosoft RT-PCR kit.

Base Sequence↗
PubMed1981

A study of the proportions of swimmers among well controls and children with enterovirus-like illness shedding or not shedding an enterovirus.

CHildren between the ages of less than 1 year and 15 years who visited a pediatric clinic in Madison, Wisconsin, from June 13 through September 1, 1977, were surveyed for the frequency and location of swimming they had done in the two weeks prior to the clinic visit. The study population consisted of 679 well controls, and 296 children with enteroviral-like syndromes. Throat and rectal swab specimens were collected from 241 of the ill patients and from 27 well children. Non-polio enteroviruses were recovered from 119 ill and two well individuals. Other viruses were recovered from an additional 13 ill patients. The majority of viral-like syndromes were respiratory, with or without fever and gastrointestinal symptoms. Exclusive beach swimmers had significantly (p less than 0.0005) increased relative risk (odds ratio estimate 3.41) of enterovirus illness. The highest relative risk (10.63) of enterovirus illness occurred in children less than 4 years old who were exclusive beach swimmers. Swimming in pools exclusively carried no significantly increased risk of enterovirus illness. Children with apparent viral illnesses based on clinical findings, who had no virus isolated, did not differ from well controls in the type of swimming exposure (either beaches or pools) in the two weeks prior to their clinic visit.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1975

Ecology of enteroviruses in tropics. I. Circulation of enteroviruses in healthy infants in tropical urban area.

A continuing surveillance on enterovirus infection in healthy infants was conducted from October 1971 through February 1973 in urban areas in Ghana, West Africa. About 40 infants were visited in every two months for collection of faecal specimens and examined for infection. Enteroviruses were recovered in tissue culture. The overall isolation rate of enteroviruses was approximately 44%, and there was no seasonal difference between rainy and dry seasons. The rate of virus isolation in urban areas was significantly higher than in rural areas. Within the urban areas, however, no difference in the rate of virus isolation was detected between densely populated and sparsely populated areas. The results of virus identification revealed that all three types of Poliovirus, many types of Echovirus and a few Coxsackieviruses were isolated during the course of the study. It was observed that improvement of sanitary facilities decreased the frequency of virus infection among infants, but the condition of water supply did not influence the virus infection rate. Neither the age of infants nor the size of siblings showed any relation to the virus isolation rate. It was suggested from the results that many types of enteroviruses have been circulation continuously in the tropical urban community throughout the year.

Coxsackievirus Infections↗
PubMed2002

Human rhinovirus 87 and enterovirus 68 represent a unique serotype with rhinovirus and enterovirus features.

It has recently been reported that all but one of the 102 known serotypes of the genus Rhinovirus segregate into two genetic clusters (C. Savolainen, S. Blomqvist, M. N. Mulders, and T. Hovi, J. Gen. Virol. 83:333-340, 2002). The only exception is human rhinovirus 87 (HRV87). Here we demonstrate that HRV87 is genetically and antigenically highly similar to enterovirus 68 (EV68) and is related to EV70, the other member of human enterovirus group D. The partial nucleotide sequences of the 5' untranslated region, capsid regions VP4/VP2 and VP1, and the 3D RNA polymerase gene of the HRV87 prototype strain F02-3607 Corn showed 97.3, 97.8, 95.2, and 95.9% identity to the corresponding regions of EV68 prototype strain Fermon. The amino acid identities were 100 and 98.1% for the products of the two capsid regions and 97.9% for 3D RNA polymerase. Antigenic cross-reaction between HRV87 and EV68 was indicated by microneutralization with monotypic antisera. Phylogenetic analysis showed definite clustering of HRV87 and EV68 with EV70 for all sequences examined. Both HRV87 and EV68 were shown to be acid sensitive by two different assays, while EV70 was acid resistant, which is typical of enteroviruses. The cytopathic effect induced by HRV87 or EV68 was inhibited by monoclonal antibodies to the decay-accelerating factor known to be the receptor of EV70. We conclude that HRV87 and EV68 are strains of the same picornavirus serotype presenting features of both rhinoviruses and enteroviruses.

Amino Acid Sequence↗