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At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed2001

Dextrins as potential carriers for drug targeting: tailored rates of dextrin degradation by introduction of pendant groups.

There is a recognised need to identify new biodegradable polymers suitable for development as targetable drug carriers. The aim of this study was to determine the rate of degradation of two dextrin fractions (Mw 15.5 and 51 KDa) by alpha-amylase and liver lysosomal enzymes (tritosomes). Also experiments were conducted to discover whether backbone modification by succinolyation (1-34 mol%) or pendant group incorporation (e.g. doxorubicin) could be used to tailor the rate of polymer degradation. Dextrin (alpha-1,4 polyglucose) is a natural polymer used clinically as a peritoneal dialysis solution and as a controlled drug delivery formulation. Size exclusion chromatography (SEC) showed that dextrin was degraded rapidly (within 20 min) by rat plasma and porcine pancreatic alpha-amylase. In contrast over 48 h no degradation was observed in the presence of tritosomes. The rate of alpha-amylase degradation of succinoylated dextrins (Mw approximately 51 KDa) was dependant on the degree of modification (dextrin >1>5>15>34 mol% succinoylation). Dextrin-doxorubicin conjugates were prepared from the 15 and 34 mol% succinoylated intermediates to have a doxorubicin loading of 8 and 12 wt.%, respectively. These doxorubicin conjugates were more stable than their parent intermediates, and SEC showed an apparently higher molecular weight. The drug conjugates did however degrade slowly over 7 days to release oligosaccharide-doxorubicin species. This fundamental study demonstrates the possibility of controlling the rate of dextrin enzymolysis by backbone modification and thus affords the potential to rationally design dextrin-drug conjugates for specific applications as targetable carriers.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

[The effects of indigestible dextrin on sugar tolerance: III. Improvement in sugar tolerance by indigestible dextrin on the impaired glucose tolerance model].

Recently developed, Indigestible Dextrin (PF-C) is a low viscosity, water-soluble dietary fiber obtained by heating and enzyme-treatment of potato starch. It has an average molecular weight of 1600. Results from methylation analysis via gas chromatography show the indigestible portion to be a dextrin composed of alpha-1.4, alpha-1.6, beta-1.2, beta-1.3, and beta-1.6 glucosidic bonds and 1.6-anhydro-beta-D-glucose (levoglucosan) as part of the reducing terminal. Physiological attributes such as an improvement in sucrose tolerance and a reduction in blood lipid levels have since been demonstrated. In this study to establish a dose response for PF-C on blood glucose and insulin levels following a sucrose load, administration studies were conducted on normal rats and rats with impaired glucose tolerance. The results are summarized as follows: 1) To estimate an effective dose of PF-C on the reduction in blood glucose and insulin levels following an oral sucrose load, an oral sucrose (1.5g/kg body weight) tolerance test was conducted on rats. The increase in both plasma glucose and insulin levels following a sucrose+PF-C (0.075, 0.15, 0.60, and 1.5g/kg body weight) load was significantly lower compared to the sucrose load. The results show that the most effective dose of PF-C was found to be 0.15g/kg body weight. 2) Another sucrose tolerance test was conducted on three different rat model groups with drug or diet induced impaired glucose tolerance. Impaired glucose tolerance was achieved by injecting one group with streptozotocin at 1.5 days (60mg/kg body weight); a second group was injected at seven weeks (30mg/kg body weight), and a third group was fed on a high (65%) sucrose diet. For this sucrose tolerance test, the adult (7-week) streptozotocin induced diabetic rats and the high-sucrose diet rats on concurrent administrations of PF-C (0.15g/kg body weight) showed decreases in both plasma glucose and insulin levels following a sucrose (1.5g/kg body weight) load. For the neonatal (1.5-day) streptozotocin induced diabetic rat group, reduced increases in plasma glucose were observed with no change in insulin levels as a result of concurrent administration of PF-C following a sucrose load.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Anti-HIV type 1 activity of sulfated derivatives of dextrin against primary viral isolates of HIV type 1 in lymphocytes and monocyte-derived macrophages.

The anti-HIV-1 activity of sulfated derivatives of dextrin was tested in activated peripheral blood mononuclear cells and in monocyte-derived macrophages using low-passage syncytium-inducing and non-syncytium-inducing primary viral isolates of HIV-1. All four compounds blocked infection in a dose-dependent manner. Dextrin 2-sulfate blocked infection with a 90% inhibitory concentration (IC90) of 69 microg ml(-1). The IC90 for dextrin 3-sulfate was 50 microg ml(-1) and for dextrin 6-sulfate was 14 microg ml(-1). Increasing the number of sulfate groups to three per glucan molecule (dextrin 2-, 3-, and 6-sulfate) did not reduce the IC90 further (13 microg ml(-1)) compared to dextrin 6-sulfate. There was no significant difference in the concentration required to block infection of activated peripheral blood mononuclear cells when compared with monocyte-derived macrophages, irrespective of whether low-passage syncytium-inducing or non-syncytium-inducing primary viral isolates of HIV-1 were used. Dextrin 2-sulfate and dextrin 6-sulfate also reduced the transmission of HIV-1 in experiments performed using peripheral blood mononuclear cells from HIV-1-positive patients by 6- to 251-fold in a limiting dilution tissue culture infectious dose assay. Sulfated dextrins were not toxic to either primary lymphocytes or macrophages at the concentrations tested. Having previously shown that the cell surface binding of sulfated dextrins is dependent on the position of the negatively charged sulfate groups, we now show that their anti-HIV-1 activity in primary lymphocytes and macrophages is also dependent on the same arrangement. A phase I/II clinical trial of dextrin 2-sulfate is now in progress.

Anti-HIV Agents↗
PubMed1997

Adsorption of Dextrin at Mineral/Water Interface

The adsorption mechanism of dextrin on aqueous minerals such as fluorite, apatite, galena, magnetite, gamma-alumina, and graphite was studied by adsorption experiments, zeta potential measurements, and FT-IR studies. Depending on the nature of the mineral surface, dextrin was found to interact in three different ways viz. by chemisorption, physisorption, or hydrophobic-hydrophobic interaction. The adsorption density of dextrin was found to be pH dependent. Maximum adsorption of dextrin was obtained around the pH at which the mineral surface is highly hydroxylated. The mechanism of dextrin interaction with the surface metal hydroxy sites, ( identical withMeOH), was found to proceed via chemical complexation. A linear relationship was observed between the adsorption density of dextrin and the pH of maximum surface hydroxylation. Zeta potential measurements have indicated the possibility of dextrin adsorption by electrostatic interaction under the conditions where mineral surface and dextrin are oppositely charged. Furthermore dextrin was found to adsorb on hydrophobic minerals such as graphite by hydrophobic-hydrophobic interaction. However, the magnitude of adsorption by electrostatic and hydrophobic interaction was found to be very marginal compared to that of chemical complexation. Copyright 1997 Academic Press. Copyright 1997Academic Press

Journal Article↗
PubMed1996

Different central opioid receptor subtype antagonists modify maltose dextrin and deprivation-induced water intake in sham feeding and sham drinking rats.

Different central opioid receptor subtypes participate in the mediation of intakes of simple (sucrose: mu, kappa 1) and complex (maltose dextrin: mu) carbohydrates as well as deprivation-induced water intake (mu) under real-feeding and real-drinking conditions. An identical pattern of mu and kappa 1 mediation of sucrose intake was observed in sham-feeding rats as well, suggesting their actions on orosensory mechanisms supporting sucose intake. The present study examined whether centrally administered general (naltrexone: 1-50 micrograms), mu (beta-funaltrexamine: 1-20 micrograms), mu 1 (naloxonazine: 50 micrograms), kappa 1 (nor-binaltorphamine: 1-20 micrograms), delta 1 ([D-Ala2, Leu5, Cys6]-enkephalin: 10-40 micrograms) or delta 2 (naltrindole isothiocyanate: 20 micrograms) opioid subtype antagonists altered either maltose dextrin (10%) intake during sham feeding or deprivation (24 h)-induced water intake during sham drinking in rats with gastric fistulas. Sham feeding significantly increased maltose dextrin intake (180%) and sham drinking significantly increased deprivation-induced water intake (256%) over a 60 min time course. Naltrexone significantly and dose-dependently reduced maltose dextrin intake (78%) in sham feeding rats, and deprivation-induced water intake (51%) in sham drinking rats. Maltose dextrin intake in sham feeding rats was significantly reduced by either kappa 1 (69%) or delta 1 (59%) opioid antagonism, was significantly increased by mu 1 antagonism (43%), and was not significantly affected by either mu or delta 2 opioid antagonism. Deprivation-induced water intake in sham drinking rats was significantly reduced by either mu (41%), mu 1 (28%), delta 1 (48%) or delta 2 (28%) opioid antagonism, but was not significantly affected by kappa 1 opioid antagonism. The difference in opioid receptor subtype mediation of maltose dextrin intake in real feeding and sham feeding conditions suggest that kappa 1 and delta 1 receptors are involved in the orosensory mechanisms supporting maltose dextrin intake, while mu receptors are involved in the ingestive and post-ingestive mechanisms supporting maltose dextrin intake. The different patterns of opioid involvement in sucrose and maltose dextrin intake in sham feeding and real feeding conditions provide further support for the hypothesis that at least two different carbohydrate taste systems exist. The difference in opioid receptor subtype mediation of deprivation-induced water intake in real drinking and sham drinking conditions may reflect the removal in the sham drinking condition of a mu-mediated prerestorative satiety mechanism, and the unmasking of other opioid-mediated signalling mechanisms.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Reduction of the viral load of HIV-1 after the intraperitoneal administration of dextrin 2-sulphate in patients with AIDS.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the safety and efficacy of the sulphated polysaccharide, dextrin 2-sulphate, when delivered to the lymphatic circulation by the peritoneal route. DESIGN: An open Phase I/II dose-escalation clinical study in which six patients with AIDS were treated with seven courses of dextrin 2-sulphate each lasting 1 month. METHODS: During each course of treatment, the drug was administered daily for 28 days using an intraperitoneal catheter. Viral load was measured at frequent intervals using a plasma tissue culture infectious dose (TCID) assay, a cellular TCID assay, p24 antigenaemia, HIV-1 RNA and HIV-1 DNA. Plasma beta-chemokine levels were also measured. RESULTS: Dose escalation was completed without toxicity. A total of 7 patient-months of treatment were completed. With increasing doses of dextrin 2-sulphate, the infectious plasma viraemia, cellular viraemia and p24 antigenaemia all fell during the period of drug administration, but with no significant change in HIV-1 RNA. This was associated with increased plasma levels of macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1alpha and MIP-1beta. Dextrin 2-sulphate accumulated in peritoneal macrophages and induced the release of MIP-1alpha and MIP-1beta from these cells in vitro. These beta-chemokines could have augmented the cell surface-mediated anti-HIV-1 effect of dextrin 2-sulphate in vivo by binding to and blocking the CC-chemokine receptor-5. A second fall in infectious plasma viraemia, cellular viraemia, p24 antigenaemia and HIV-1 RNA was seen at day 100 which was then sustained for several months. A clinical improvement in Kaposi's sarcoma was also seen. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that the intraperitoneal administration of dextrin 2-sulphate can reduce the replication of HIV-1 in patients with AIDS. With increasing doses of dextrin 2-sulphate, the fall in viral load was seen during the period of drug administration and again 2 months after completing treatment.

AIDS-Related Opportunistic Infections↗
PubMed1999

Artificial chaperoning of insulin, human carbonic anhydrase and hen egg lysozyme using linear dextrin chains--a sweet route to the native state of globular proteins.

Linear dextrins (alpha-1,4-D-glucopyranoside chains) are known to possess amphiphilic surfaces and solubilize lipophilic compounds. We have assessed the ability of this amphiphilic surface of dextrin to inhibit the self-aggregation and assist the refolding of proteins. Addition of decameric dextrin, or dextrin-10, in the renaturation buffer improves the refolding yield of human carbonic anhydrase from its guanidinium chloride-induced denatured state. It is also seen to inhibit the self-aggregation of insulin. The ability of dextrin-10 to interact with cetyltrimethylammonium bromide and postpone its critical micellar concentration allows the use of dextrin-10 as a 'detergent stripping agent' in a novel artificial chaperoning process described earlier. The aggregation of human carbonic anhydrase and lysozyme upon refolding is prevented by cetyltrimethylammonium bromide due to the formation of a protein-detergent complex; dextrin-10 strips off the detergent from the complex and allow the proteins to fold, thus increasing the renaturation yield. Dextran-4 (the alpha-1,6-D-glucopyranoside chain), which does not exhibit amphiphilic properties, does not help in such artificial chaperoning.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Investigation of the fine structure of alpha-dextrins derived from amylopectin and their relation to the structure of waxy-maize starch.

Alpha-dextrins, obtained by fractional precipitation with methanol of the products of the action of Bacillus subtilis alpha-amylase on waxy-maize amylopectin, were debranched with isoamylase and the distributions of the unit chains were analysed by gel-permeation chromatography. The large alpha-dextrins still contained long B-chains after hydrolysis for 60 min, but these were absent from the small dextrins with chain numbers of approximately 11 or less. The small dextrins contained increased amounts of chains with lengths intermediate of those of the long B-chains and the main part of the short chains. After hydrolysis for 210 min, almost all of the long B-chains had disappeared and the chains with intermediate lengths had been shortened further. The distributions of the unit chains of the internal chains, obtained by debranching of the phosphorolysis (phi)-limit dextrins, gave similar results and showed that the ratio of A- to B-chains was unchanged during the alpha-amylolysis. Models for the fine structure of the intermediate alpha-dextrins are proposed.

Amylopectin↗
PubMed2005

ATR-FT/IR study on the interactions between gliadins and dextrin and their effects on protein secondary structure.

The effects of heat treatment and dextrin addition on the secondary structure of gliadins were investigated by means of attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FT/IR). Gliadins and gliadin/dextrin mixtures (before and after thermal treatment) were prepared as a dried protein film on the ATR-FT/IR zinc selenide cell plate and equilibrated at a water activity (a(w)) of 0.06. The results show that gliadins undergo conformational changes upon thermal treatment both in the absence and in the presence of dextrin. In particular, in the thermally treated gliadins, the decrease of the band at around 1651 cm(-)(1) and the increase of the bands at around 1628 and 1690 cm(-)(1) suggest a loss of alpha-helix structure and a higher content of protein aggregates. The same trend was observed in the presence of dextrin. Concerning the interactions between gliadins and dextrin, gliadin/dextrin mixtures show variations in the amide I region compared to native gliadins (e.g., an increase of the band at 1645 cm(-)(1) and the absence of the band at around 1668 cm(-)(1)) that might be due to hydrogen bond formation between gliadins and dextrin. It was also found that the spectrum of gliadin/dextrin mixtures was less affected by the hydration state than that of native gliadins, as observed from the differential spectra obtained by subtraction of the spectrum obtained at a(w) = 0.06 (driest condition tested) from the spectrum of the sample equilibrated at a(w) = 0.84. This could be due to the fact that C=O and N-H groups of gliadins are engaged to form hydrogen bonds with the hydroxyl groups of dextrin, and so they are not perturbed by the presence of water molecules. Finally, water activity effects on the secondary structure of gliadins are also discussed.

Dextrins↗
PubMed1995

Abomasal glucose, maize starch and maize dextrin infusions in cattle: small-intestinal disappearance, net portal glucose flux and ileal oligosaccharide flow.

Three castrated male Holstein cattle (423 (SD 19)kg live weight) fitted with elevated carotid artery, portal, and mesenteric venous catheters, and abomasal and ileal cannulas were used to study small-intestinal starch digestion. The cattle were infused abomasally with water (275 ml/h), glucose (66 g/h), maize dextrin (66 g/h) or maize starch (66 g/h) in an incomplete Latin square design, with eight infusion periods. Infusion with carbohydrate resulted in higher arterial glucose concentrations and greater net portal glucose flux than when cattle were infused with water. Arterial glucose concentration and net portal glucose flux were highest when glucose was infused. In the small intestine, 85% of abomasally-infused glucose, 78% of infused dextrin, and 66% of infused starch disappeared. Of the carbohydrate that disappeared in the small intestine, that which could be accounted for as net portal glucose flux was 73% for glucose, 60% for dextrin, and 57% for starch. Ileal digesta contained unpolymerized glucose, and short-chain soluble alpha-glucoside. Of the infused dextrin flowing past the ileum (14 g/h), 0.3 g/h was glucose, 6.2 g/h was soluble alpha-glucoside, and 7.5 g/h was insoluble alpha-glucoside. Of the infused starch flowing at the ileum (22.2 g/h), 0.9 g/h was glucose, 5.3 g/h was soluble alpha-glucoside, and 15.9 g/h was insoluble alpha-glucoside. The average chain lengths of the soluble alpha-glucosides in ileal digesta were 2.07 and 2.36 for dextrin and starch infusions respectively, indicating mostly di- and to a lesser extent trisaccharides. We conclude that (1) when 66 g raw starch is presented to the small intestine per h, about half of the intestinal disappearance appears as glucose in the portal vasculature, and (2) alpha-1,4 glucosidase (EC 3.2.1.20) activity at the brush border is the rate-limiting step to small-intestinal starch digestion in cattle.

Abomasum↗
PubMed1992

Estimation of the niacin requirements for tilapia fed diets containing glucose or dextrin.

Two 12-wk experiments were conducted to determine the adequate dietary niacin levels for juvenile hybrid tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus x O. aureus, when diets containing either 38% D(+)-glucose or 38% dextrin (type III, from corn) as the carbohydrate source were fed. In Experiment 1, we used 0, 40, 80, 120, 160 and 200 mg/kg of supplemental niacin in both the glucose- and dextrin-containing diets. In Experiment 2, 0, 10, 25, 40 and 55 mg/kg or 0, 10, 25, 40, 80, 120 and 160 mg/kg of supplemental niacin was incorporated in diets containing glucose or dextrin, respectively. In both experiments, fish fed niacin-deficient diets grew poorly. They developed skin, fin and mouth lesions and hemorrhages; the snout was deformed and there was gill edema. These pathologies began 6 wk after the experiments started. Plasma glucose concentrations were higher in fish fed glucose diets than those fed dextrin diets. Weight gain analyzed by broken-line regression indicated that the adequate dietary niacin level for maximal growth in rapidly growing tilapia fingerlings is 26 mg/kg in fish fed the glucose diet and 121 mg/kg in fish fed the dextrin diet.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed1991

Small intestinal starch digestion in steers: effect of various levels of abomasal glucose, corn starch and corn dextrin infusion on small intestinal disappearance and net glucose absorption.

Eight Holstein steers (four at 300 kg, four at 406 kg) fitted with an elevated carotid artery, hepatic portal and mesenteric venous catheters, and abomasal and ileal cannulas were used in several 4 x 4 Latin square experiments to evaluate small intestinal starch digestion. They were fed alfalfa hay at 1.5% of BW and abomasally infused with water or glucose, corn starch or corn dextrin (one carbohydrate per Latin square) at 20, 40 or 60 g/h, with subsequent determination of small intestinal disappearance and net portal glucose absorption. Increasing the amount of all three carbohydrates infused abomasally increased the amount of carbohydrate disappearing in the small intestine. Increased infusion of glucose caused a continual increase (linear, P less than .01) in net glucose absorption, whereas net glucose absorption for starch and dextrin was maximal at the 20 g/h infusion (quadratic, P less than .05). With the 60 g/h infusion, 94% of the glucose but only 38% of starch and 29% of small intestinal dextrin disappearance could be accounted for as net glucose absorption, leaving a large portion of starch and dextrin disappearance unaccounted for. Of the infused starch and dextrin passing the ileum, 5.8 and 7.3%, respectively, was unpolymerized glucose, indicating that, at least in the distal small intestine, complete starch hydrolysis exceeded the capacity for glucose disappearance. It is concluded that only about 35% of the raw corn starch disappearing in the steer's small intestine resulted in net portal glucose absorption.

Animals↗
PubMed1984

Development of Rapidly Fermenting Strains of Saccharomyces diastaticus for Direct Conversion of Starch and Dextrins to Ethanol.

Alcoholic fermentation, growth, and glucoamylase production by 12 strains of Saccharomyces diastaticus were compared by using starch and dextrins as substrates. Haploid progeny produced from a rapidly fermenting strain, SD2, were used for hybridization with other S. diastaticus and Saccharomyces cerevisiae haploids. Alcoholic fermentation and enzyme production by hybrid diploids and their haploid parents were evaluated. Although the dosage of the STA or DEX (starch or dextrin fermentation) genes may enhance ethanol production, epistatic effects in certain strain combinations caused decreases in starch-fermenting activity. Both the nature of the starch or dextrin used and the fermentation medium pH had substantial effects on alcohol production. Commercial dextrin was not as good a substrate as dextrins prepared by digesting starch with alpha-amylase. Crude manioc starch digested by alpha-amylase was fermented directly by selected hybrids with almost 100% conversion efficiency. The manioc preparation contained adequate minerals and growth factors. This procedure should be suitable for direct commercial application in manioc-producing regions in Brazil and elsewhere. A rapidly fermenting haploid strain, SD2-A8, descended from strain SD2, contains two unlinked genes controlling formation of extracellular amylase. A convenient method for detecting these genes (STA genes) in replica plates containing large numbers of meiotic progeny was developed.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2003

Phosphorylation of starch and dextrin by dry-heating in the presence of phosphate, and their calcium phosphate-solubilizing ability.

Starch and dextrin were phosphorylated by dry-heating in the presence of phosphate, and their properties were examined. The phosphorylation of starch was accelerated with decreasing moisture, rising incubation temperature and prolongation of the incubation period. However, a rise in incubation temperature, and lengthened incubation period caused increased browning and degradation. A decrease in the pH from 5.5 to 3.0 resulted in a modest increase of phosphorylation, but also marked browning and degradation. When potato starch was phosphorylated at 140 degrees C and pH 5.5 for 24 h, its phosphorus content was increased up to 3.47%, with fewer side reactions. Phosphorlylated starch and dextrin had calcium phosphate-solubilizing abitity. Phosphorylated dextrin with 2.42% phosphorus had about half the calcium phosphate-solubilizing ability of casein phosphopeptide (CPP). The possibility of substituting of phosphorylated starch and dextrin for CPP as a calcium phosphate-absorption enhancing material is discussed herein.

Calcium Phosphates↗
PubMed2000

Substituent distribution in highly branched dextrins from methylated starches.

Granular potato starch and amylopectin potato starch were methylated to molar substitutions (MS) up to 0.29. Extensive alpha-amylase digestion gave mixtures of partially methylated oligomers. Precipitation of larger fragments by methanol yielded mainly alpha-limit dextrins (84-99%). Methanol precipitates were extensively digested with beta-amylase yielding alpha,beta-limit dextrins. The average substitution level of branched glucose residues in the dextrins thus obtained was determined after per deuteriomethylation by using FAB mass spectrometry, and compared with that of the linearly linked glucose residues. The present work demonstrates that methylation does not show any preference for substitution at either branched or linearly linked glucose residues, taking into account the inherently lower amount of substitution sites at branched residues. The results corroborate earlier studies wherein it was found that substituents in branched regions are distributed almost randomly. In addition, the data enable the determination of the average degree of branching of partially methylated dextrins.

Carbohydrate Sequence↗
PubMed2003

Dextrin characterization by high-performance anion-exchange chromatography--pulsed amperometric detection and size-exclusion chromatography--multi-angle light scattering--refractive index detection.

Starch hydrolysis products, or dextrins, are widely used throughout the food industry for their functional properties. Dextrins are saccharide polymers linked primarily by alpha-(1 --> 4) D-glucose units and are prepared by partial hydrolysis of starch. Hydrolysis can be accomplished by the use of acid, enzymes, or by a combination of both. The hydrolysis products are typically characterized by the "dextrose equivalent" (DE), which refers to the total reducing power of all sugars present relative to glucose. While the DE gives the supplier and buyer a rough guide to the bulk properties of the material, the physiochemical properties of dextrins are dependent on the overall oligosaccharide profile. High-performance anion-exchange chromatography (HPAEC) with pulsed amperometric detection and size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) with multi-angle light-scattering and refractive index detection were used to characterize dextrins from commercial sources. HPAEC was used to acquire the oligosaccharide profile, and SEC to obtain an overall molar mass distribution. These methods in combination extended our understanding of the relationship between oligosaccharide profile, DE, and the hydrolysis process. Data from the two techniques enabled a method for estimating the DE that gave results in reasonable agreement with the accepted titration method.

Anions↗