From colonial America to bicentennial America: two centuries of vicissitudes in the institutional care of mental patients.
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Ancient dog mitogenomes support the dual dispersal of dogs and agriculture into South America.
Archaeological and palaeogenomic data show that dogs were the only domestic animals introduced during the early peopling of the Americas. Hunter-gatherer groups spread quickly towards the south of the continent, but it is unclear when dogs reached Central and South America. To address this issue, we generated and analysed 70 complete mitochondrial genomes from archaeological and modern dogs ranging from Central Mexico to Central Chile and Argentina, revealing the dynamics of dog populations. Our results demonstrate that pre-contact Central and South American dogs are all assigned to a specific clade that diverged after dogs entered North America. Specifically, the divergence time between North, Central and South American dog clades is consistent with the spread of agriculture and the adoption of maize in South America between 7000 and 5000 years ago. An isolation-by-distance best characterizes how dogs expanded into South America. We identify the arrival of new lineages of dogs in post-contact South America, likely of European origin, and their legacy in modern village dogs. Interestingly, the pre-contact Mesoamerican maternal origin of the Chihuahua has persisted in some modern individuals.
Animals↗
What Uniparental Lineages Tell Us About the Prehistoric Human Colonization of the Americas.
OBJECTIVES: From the perspective of uniparental markers, the view of the human prehistoric settlement of America is that it resulted from a single main migration after the Last Glacial Maximum, following a long or short period of genetic isolation in Beringia. Ancient DNA and whole genome analyses have confirmed this view. My objective here is to demonstrate that humans entered America before the LGM and that the documented post-LGM expansions began in South instead of North America. METHODS: In this work, I have reanalyzed all publicly available mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosome haplogroups in the American population using simple phylogenetic and phylogeographic methodologies. RESULTS: The arrival of the American settlers occurred more than 30,000 years ago, preceding the LGM. As genomic studies have uncovered, at least two Asian populations contributed to the ancestry of the immigrant population. Low population density and climatic deterioration led to a long period of demographic eclipse, during which small bands of hunter-gatherers made long journeys in search of favorable niches. After the LGM, the climate improved, and demographic expansions occurred in multiple independent centers. The founding and expansion ages of the uniparental haplogroups indicate that these centers were in South America, particularly the Colombian isthmus, the Andean region, the Southern Cone, and the Amazon. Subsequent dispersals occurred in North America, one involving mitochondrial haplogroups A2, C1, and D1, but not B2, and another, of lesser magnitude, represented by the expansion of haplogroups C4c and X2a. CONCLUSION: This work offers a previously unexplored model for the colonization of the Americas.
Native American↗
Abortion research in Latin America.
Surveys dealing with abortion in Latin America have provided useful information despite problems in the collection and use of the data. Considerations that should be taken into account in designing abortion surveys and using the resultant information have been discussed here. Special attention has been paid to the need for a broad definition of "abortion" in order to overcome difficulties in gathering information about abortion in Latin America. Surveys have shown increasing incidence of abortion throughout Latin America in the recent past. In examining changes over time it is crucial to interpret clearly and carefully the summary measures of proportion of pregnancies ending in abortion and abortion rates per 1,000 women. It is also important to realize that the level and direction of change of the abortion rate depends on both the rate at which women are becoming pregnant and the proportion of pregnancies ending in abortion. Better survey design and techniques and more careful use of the resulting information will aid in the planning and evaluation of programs aimed at reducing abortion in Latin America.
Abortion, Induced↗
The landscape of suicide risk factors in Latin America.
Suicide is a leading cause of death globally, with over 75 % of cases occurring in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Latin America, a severely underrepresented region in suicide research, has experienced a 6 % increase in its suicide rate from 2010 to 2016, contrasting with a global decline. In this commentary, we provide an overview of the epidemiological, social, and clinical factors influencing suicide in Latin America. We highlight the distinct trends in Latin America compared to other world regions, including the significant disparities in mental health care accessibility. Our review also considers the role of sociocultural factors such as strong family ties, traditional gender norms, and the impact of religiosity on stigma and care-seeking behaviors. Additionally, we address the lack of representation of Latin American populations in genetic studies on suicide, which hinders the identification of relevant biological markers and the development of tailored interventions. We call for increased research on the clinical, genetic, and social determinants of suicide in this region to better understand risk factors and ultimately inform suicide prevention strategies. Addressing this gap is critical for reducing suicide rates in Latin America.
Humans↗
Genomic exploration of the journey of Plasmodium vivax in Latin America.
Plasmodium vivax is the predominant malaria parasite in Latin America. Its colonization history in the region is rich and complex, and is still highly debated, especially about its origin(s). Our study employed cutting-edge population genomic techniques to analyze whole genome variation from 620 P. vivax isolates, including 107 newly sequenced samples from West Africa, Middle East, and Latin America. This sampling represents nearly all potential source populations worldwide currently available. Analyses of the genetic structure, diversity, ancestry, coalescent-based inferences, including demographic scenario testing using Approximate Bayesian Computation, have revealed a more complex evolutionary history than previously envisioned. Indeed, our analyses suggest that the current American P. vivax populations predominantly stemmed from a now-extinct European lineage, with the potential contribution also from unsampled populations, most likely of West African origin. We also found evidence that P. vivax arrived in Latin America in multiple waves, initially during early European contact and later through post-colonial human migration waves in the late 19th-century. This study provides a fresh perspective on P. vivax's intricate evolutionary journey and brings insights into the possible contribution of West African P. vivax populations to the colonization history of Latin America.
Plasmodium vivax↗
Problems of venereal infections in Latin America and the Caribbean and means of fighting them.
Rather than providing a comprehensive overview of the sexually transmitted disease (STD) picture in the Americas, this presentation contrasts the STD problem in Latin America and the Caribbean with the situation in both less developed and more developed regions of the world. It also points out three areas of opportunity for improving preventive and curative STD services, specifically: (1) more effective utilization of social security institutions in Latin America, (2) incorporation of STD services into primary health care programs, and (3) development of pilot projects in the smaller Caribbean territories. It is noted, in addition, that the more developed countries of the region are showing increased interest in sexually transmitted diseases. Among other things, the recruitment of a PAHO epidemiologist in venereal diseases on Jamaica--to assist in the development of a national STD program--opens up a new area for PAHO technical assistance which, if successful, may be extended elsewhere.
Central America↗
Program for the expansion and improvement of biologics production and control in Latin America.
The production and control of biologicals sufficient to meet the needs of the countries in the Americas has been of basic concern to the Pan American Health Organization for many years. This is evidenced by the Ten-Year Health Plan for the Americas, drawn up in Santiago, Chile in 1972 by the Health Ministers of the Americas, in which the goal of making the Region self-sufficient in all of the essential immunizing agents within a ten-year period, was established. At present only Canada and the United States are more or less self-sufficient in this regard. All of the others are, to a greater or lesser degree, dependent on imports. In PAHO's present program the greatest emphasis is being placed on the development of effective control systems, particularly at the national level. The steps taken to achieve this goal and the progress to date are outlined.
Americas↗
Substance use and co-occurring mental health conditions among adolescents and young adults in North America: a systematic review.
BACKGROUND: Substance use and co-occurring mental health conditions are common among adolescents and young adults and represent an important clinical and public health concern in North America. Trauma exposure, psychiatric symptoms, and social adversity frequently co-occur with substance-related problems in this population. This systematic review aimed to synthesize evidence on prevalence patterns, associated clinical and psychosocial factors, and care-related implications described in the literature on adolescents and young adults with substance use and co-occurring mental health conditions. METHODS: This systematic review followed PRISMA guidelines and was preregistered in PROSPERO (CRD42024581685). A systematic search was conducted in MEDLINE (Ovid), Embase, PsycINFO, and Google Scholar. Eligible studies examined adolescents and young adults (≤ 25 years) in North America. A combination of subject headings, keywords, and synonyms for the concepts "adolescents," "young adults," "substance use disorders," and "co-occurring mental health conditions" was used. Of 1,882 records identified, 29 studies met the inclusion criteria. Given the heterogeneity of the literature, findings were synthesized narratively. RESULTS: The included studies showed heterogeneity in population, setting, denominator, and ascertainment method. Across the literature, depressive, anxiety-related, trauma-related, and externalizing mental health presentations were frequently reported alongside substance-related problems in adolescents and young adults. Trauma exposure, adverse childhood experiences, and broader social adversity were also commonly reported in association with substance-related problems across studies. Care-related implications were more limited and were largely derived as future directions mentioned across studies rather than direct evaluations of youth-specific service models. CONCLUSION: Co-occurring mental health and substance-related problems were frequently reported among adolescents and young adults in high-risk and service-engaged populations in North America. Trauma and social adversity were prominent across the reviewed literature, while direct evidence for evaluated, integrated, youth-specific care models remains limited. These findings support the relevance of developmentally appropriate, integrated, and trauma-informed approaches to care and highlight the need for further research directly evaluating improved service delivery models for this population. CLINICAL TRIAL NUMBER: Not applicable.
Humans↗
The magnitude of malnutrition in Latin America.
Malnutrition, an illness which can easily be prevented and cured with existing resources and technology, is perhaps the most widespread disease in Latin America. However, it is unrecognized as such, and those population groups that suffer most from it are most prone to have their sufferings unrecorded. Two factors contribute to this: (a) the inaccuracy and incomplete coverage of vital statistics, as reflected by underregistration of deaths, insufficient medical certification of registered deaths, and biases both among certifying physicians and in the International Classification of Diseases; and (b) low population coverage by the health care systems and thus by the statistics which they generate. These factors are related to the ideological bias of those statistical systems and to the concepts of causality which they use. Through a review and analysis of "ad hoc" studies on the frequency of malnutrition in Latin America and its incidence in relation to morbidity and mortality, an estimation is made of malnutrition-caused deaths, which would amount to almost one-fifth of deaths from all causes. As overall availability of food in Latin America is adequate, it is held that this continent ultimately has the level of malnutrition that it wishes to have.
Child, Preschool↗
Laboratory control of biological products in Latin America.
The manufacture of safe effective biological products in sufficient quantities to protect the entire population presents many problems in Latin America. The best way of ensuring such production would be to establish thorough control testing mechanisms. Ideally, no regulatory program should be considered complete without three tiers of controls: "in-process" production controls; "internal" controls by the manufacturer that monitor the production section; and "national" controls by the government that monitor the manufacturer. Although the standards maintained by some biologicals manufacturing centers in Latin America are very high, no country has yet established a full-fledged three-level control system of this kind. However, two countries have decided to employ such a system and are now close to achieving that goal. Perhaps the most essential facility in any national control program is the National Biologics Control Laboratory. This laboratory must be effectively organized, properly staffed, and backed by strong implementing legislation enabling it to perform its assigned tasks. In the past, lack of such a facility has created serious problems for biologicals manufacturing efforts in Latin America. Aware of this, a number of countries are now in the process of setting up and developing effective national laboratories of this kind
Biological Products↗
Arthropod-borne encephalitides in the Americas.
The arthropod-borne encephalitides are an important cause of equine and human morbidity in the Americas. Between 1975 and 1978, 6970 human cases of arboviral encephalitis were reported in the United States of America; however, this represents only a fraction of the true incidence. St Louis encephalitis (4824 cases), California encephalitis (1035 cases), and western equine encephalitis (WEE, 947 cases) accounted for 98.5% of all reported infections. Approximately 1000-4000 cases of equine encephalitis occur annually in the United States, the majority due to WEE. In tropical America, important outbreaks of Venezuelan, eastern, and western equine encephalitis, and of Rocio encephalitis have occurred.In this article, epidemiological aspects of arboviral encephalitis outbreaks occurring within the past 5 years are reviewed. In addition, summaries of current research activities on the ecology and epidemiology of St Louis, western equine, Venezuelan equine, Rocio, and California encephalitis viruses are presented, and the problem of control of these infections is discussed.
Americas↗
Tuberculosis control in the Americas: current approaches.
Tuberculosi remains a serious public health problem in the Americas, and it has not declined as rapidly or as much as experts projected it would in the 1940's. Scientific advances in control of the disease over the last three decades have produced effective chemotherapeutic agents, established the immunizing capacity of BCG vaccine, and demonstrated the superior value of bacteriologic diagnosis in symptomatic individuals over mass community x-ray surveys, which are both inefficient and costly. They have also shown that most cases can be treated on an ambulatory basis, obviating the need for the lengthy hospital stays which have heretofore weighed so heavily on budgets. By standardization of control methods, both for diagnosis and for chemotherapy, these tasks can be taken on by polyvalent staff in the general health services, whose wide coverage places them in a position to reach a much larger segment of the population than that attended by the traditional vertical system. To a greater or lesser degree, all the countries in the Americas are beginning to orient their strategies in this direction, and some of them already have considerable progress to report.
Child↗
[Various aspects on the teaching of veterinary physiology in Latin America].
The results are presented from a PAHO/WHO survey conducted in 1974 with a view to ascertaining the characteristics of the teaching of veterinary physiology in Latin America. A total of 35 schools of veterinary medicine (out of the 69 existing at the time of the survey) replied to the questionnaire sent. In addition, the authors of this article visited 17 schools in seven countries. They examined the following aspects of the teaching of veterinary physiology in the schools surveyed: placement of the program (inside or outside the veterinary school), number of students enrolled in the courses, teaching personnel, student-instructor ratio; academic organization; course content; use of laboratory animals, text and reference books, and laboratory facilities and equipment. The problems faced in the teaching of this subject in Latin America include: lack of suitable instructors and the imbalance in the student-instructor ratio, study programs not geared to the needs of the country, wide variation in the number of hours devoted to teaching, and lack of coordination between this course and other subjects. A number of recommendations for solving those problems are put forward.
Central America↗
Ecological associations of vesicular stomatitis virus in rural Central America and Panama.
The principal objective of this study was to determine ecological associations of vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV)- New Jersey and VSV-Indiana in rural Central America and Panama. Two types of information were linked: the results of neutralizing antibody tests performed on sera from 3,232 lifetime residents of 189 rural study communitities of Central America and Panama, and ecological characteristics of the study communities as determined from natural resource atlases. The major finding was that neutralizing antibody acquistion to VSV-New Jersey was greatest for persons living at elevations between 350 and 649 meters, with relatively open, dry vegetation and distinct seasonal alternation of dry and moist (not wet) ground conditions. Similar ecological associations were found for VSV-Indiana, except that the risk of infection was also high in moist environments with dense tree cover. The results suggest that VSV-New Jersey and VSV-Indiana have similar but not identical maintenance and transmission cycles and that basic maintenance cycles for both viruses may exist in dry, open habitats rather than in tropicla rain forest habitats as was previously assumed for VSV-Indiana.
Adolescent↗
Leptospirosis as an animal and public health problem in Latin America and the Caribbean area.
As a major livestock disease, leptospirosis cuts significantly into the world's supply of animal protein through its consequences of abortion and calf mortality, retarded growth, and reduced milk production. Evidently, such losses have severe economic implications as well. The disease's impact has been somewhat diminished in the developed countries thanks to mechanization of rural activities, improved personal and environmental hygiene, and broad application of preventive measures, including the administration of bacterins, in domestic animals. Still, even in these circumstances it remains a serious problem. In the developing countries, in which large percentages of the population live in close contact with animals, the spread of infection is much greater. Moreover, the ecology of tropical and subtropical America--with its abundant rainfall, natural water courses, and high temperatures--is particularly favorable for the transmission of leptospires. In such conditions the human disease is a growing threat as well. The spread of leptospirosis, both in animals and man, is facilitated by the fact that inefection from many of the serotypes can exist without presenting serious clinical manifestations. Hence the importance of laboratory diagnosis. Systematic studies over time of serotype distribution, coupled with wide and improved surveillance, will be a key factor in bringing the disease under control. According to the limited seroepidemiologic data available, 3 to 18 per cent of the general human population, 2 to 32 per cent of those belonging to exposed occupational groups, and 10 to 50 per cent of patients with fever of unknown origin have leptospiral antibody. The most predominant serogroups are Icterohaemorrhagiae, Canicola, Pomona, Hebdomadis, and Bataviae. So far more than 50 serotypes, from 15 serogroups, have been isolated from man and animals in Latin America and the Caribbean area.
Animals↗
Cultural conceptions and mental illness. A controlled comparison of Germany and America.
This study attempts to test, in a bicultural, controlled comparison, two sociological theories of mental disorders. The first of these theories proposes that the stereotypes of mental illness profoundly shape the symptoms of mental illness in America. The second theory maintains that the requirements and needs of the mental hospital largely determine the "symptoms" of the chronic mental patient. To test these theories, matched samples of 100 mental patients in Germany and America were subjected to in-depth interviews and were administered semantic differentials. Patients were divided into groups according to length of confinement in order to investigate the thesis that the institution conditions chronic patient roles. The results revealed statistically significant differences between the two nationalities. German patients generally agreed that mental illness is a biologically determined, and rather incurable condition. In contrast, American patients generally believed that the individual is partially responsible for his condition and with the proper motivation and help, he can improve. Patients' statements about themselves and about proper behavior in the hospital were consistent with these national differences. It was concluded that institutionalization consists more in conditioning the patient to accept his status than in convincing him that he is insane.
Attitude to Health↗
Cutaneous myiasis in visitors to Central America.
Six cases of cutaneous myiasis occurred in three groups of visitors to Guatemala between February and May 1978. Attack rates ranged from 12% to 50%. Furuncular lesions were generally multiple and involved both exposed and usually unexposed areas of the body. Parasitic fly larvae recovered from two patients were identified as the botfly, Dermatobia hominis. Botfly infestation is endemic in areas of Central and South America and is acquired indirectly through the bite of carrier arthropods, including mosquitoes. Although reports of cases in North Americans visting endemic areas are rare, the condition is probably much more common in such persons than it is currently believed to be. A history of travel to Central or South America should suggest the diagnosis.
Adult↗