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At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
PubMed2001

Axon resealing following transection takes longer in central axons than in peripheral axons: implications for axonal regeneration.

Injury to axons in the CNS leads to little regenerative repair and loss of function. Conversely, injury to axons in the PNS results in vigorous regrowth of severed axons, usually with restoration of function. This difference is generally attributed to a CNS environment that either cannot support or actively inhibits regeneration and/or a failure of CNS neurons to survive axotomy. One of the earliest responses of neurons to axotomy is the resealing of cut axons. A delay in resealing could affect a neuron's ability to survive axotomy and to regenerate a new axon. In the present experiments, using a dye exclusion technique, we demonstrate that following transection of a peripheral sensory nerve, axons reseal within 8--10 h, whereas following optic nerve transection complete resealing does not occur for more than 20 h. These results show that resealing of cut axons in a CNS environment is significantly delayed compared with axons in the PNS and suggest that this could contribute to the failure of CNS neurons to regenerate following injury.

Amidines↗
PubMed1981

Morphology and synaptic connections of ultrafine primary axons in lamina I of the spinal dorsal horn: candidates for the terminal axonal arbors of primary neurons with unmyelinated (C) axons.

Neurons in Rexed's lamina I have the bulk of their dendritic arbors confined within this lamina. This study examines the morphology and synaptic connections of primary axons which generate axonal endings in lamina I of the spinal dorsal horn and are in position to deliver their inputs directly to lamina I neurons. Primary axons were made visible for light and electron microscopical study by applying horseradish peroxidase (HRP) to the severed central stumps of cervical and lumbar dorsal roots and allowing sufficient time for the orthograde movement of the HRP into the terminal axonal arbors. Golgi preparations provided supplementary light microscopical views of these axons. Lamina I receives the terminal arborization of two very different kinds of primary axons. One of these generates many ultrafine endings along unbranched, long rostrocaudally oriented, strand-like collaterals which arise from thin parent branches in Lissauer's tract. In view of these thin parent branches, most ultrafine primary axons are considered to be unmyelinated (C) primary axons. The second kind of primary axon generates large caliber endings on branched collaterals. These arise from relatively thick parent branches in Lissauer's tract which, on the basis of their size, are considered to be myelinated (A delta) primary axons. The scalloped endings of both primary axons lie in the interior of glomeruli where they form axodendritic synapses on small dendritic shafts and spines. It is at these synapses that these two kinds of primary axons are thought to transfer nociceptive and thermal inputs directly to the dendritic arbors of lamina I neurons. Transmitter release at these axodendritic synapses in response to primary inputs can be modified, probably diminished or inhibited, by synaptic events within the glomeruli from at least three sources. Synaptic vesicle-containing dendrites form dendroaxonic synapses on primary endings and two kinds of axons form axoaxonic synapses either on primary endings or on the intervaricose segments of the primary axons.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Axonal cytoskeletal changes after nondisruptive axonal injury. II. Intermediate sized axons.

Earlier studies of axonal cytoskeletal responses to stretch injury in the guinea pig optic nerve, a model of nondisruptive axonal injury such as occurs in human diffuse axonal injury, have demonstrated different cytoskeletal responses between the smallest and largest axons. But these form only approximately 3% of the total number of axons in the optic nerve. It was then posited that the pathology described in the latter axons may not be representative of the pathology in the majority of axons after stretch injury. In order to test this hypothesis, we carried out a quantitative, morphological analysis of structural changes in the cytoskeleton of intermediate (axonal diameter of 0.5-2.0 mM) sized axons at 4 h after stretch injury. Neurofilaments in axons up to 1.00 microm in diameter increased in number and in axons up to 1.50 microm diameter were compacted. This did not occur in larger axons (diameter of 1.51-2.00 microm) in the present study. However, there was focal compaction of neurofilaments in some of the larger fibers at sites where the integrity of the axolemma was lost. The response by microtubules to stretch injury differed from that of neurofilaments in that there was an increased spacing between microtubules and a loss of their number in axons of >1.51 microm diameter. We provide quantitative, morphological evidence (a) that the neurofilamentous cytoskeleton of different sized axons responds in different ways to stretch and (b) that the response by microtubules differs from that of neurofilaments.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Studies of axon-glial cell interactions and periaxonal K+ homeostasis--II. The effect of axonal stimulation, cholinergic agents and transport inhibitors on the resistance in series with the axon membrane.

The small electrical resistance in series with the axon membrane is generally modeled as the intercellular pathway for current flow through the periaxonal glial (Schwann cell) sheath. The series resistance of the medial giant axon of the crayfish, Procambarus clarkii, was found to vary with conditions known to affect the electrical properties of the periaxonal glia. Series resistance was estimated from computer analysed voltage waveforms generated by axial wire-constant current and space clamp techniques. The average series resistance for all axons was 6.2 +/- 0.5 omega cm2 (n = 128). Values ranged between 1 and 30 omega cm2. The series resistance of axons with low resting membrane resistance (less than 1500 omega cm2) increased an average of 30% when stimulated for 45 s to 7 min (50 Hz) whereas the series resistance of high membrane resistance (greater than 1500 omega cm2) axons decreased an average of 10%. Carbachol (10(-7) M) caused the series resistance of low membrane resistance axons to decrease during stimulation but had no effect on high membrane resistance axons. d-Tubocurare (10(-8) M) caused the series resistance of high membrane resistance axons to increase during stimulation but had no effect on low membrane resistance axons. Bumetanide, a Na-K-Cl cotransport inhibitor and low [K+]o, prevented the stimulation-induced increase in series resistance of low membrane resistance axons but had no effect on the high membrane resistance axons. The results suggest that the series resistance of axons varies in response to the activity of the glial K+ uptake mechanisms stimulated by the appearance of K+ in the periaxonal space during action potential generation.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Intra-axonal neurofilament compaction does not evoke local axonal swelling in all traumatically injured axons.

Traumatic axonal injury (TAI) contributes to morbidity and mortality following traumatic brain injury (TBI). Single-label immunocytochemical studies employing antibodies to neurofilament compaction (NFC), RM014, and antibodies to APP, a marker of impaired axonal transport (AxT), have shown that TAI involves both NFC and disruption of AxT. Although it may be hypothesized that both events occur within the same injured axon, this has not been confirmed. To determine the relationship between NFC and impaired AxT, dual-label immunofluorescence was employed. To compare and contrast specific changes associated with these two markers of TAI, single-label electron microscopy was also used. Rats were subjected to an impact acceleration injury (30 min-6 h survival), and their brains were prepared for dual-label immunofluorescence and single-label electron microscopy. APP and RM014 were consistently found in two distinct classes of TAI. One, which showed only RM014 immunoreactivity, was thin and elongate, was sometimes vacuolated, and revealed little progressive change over time. The second was distinguished by focal axonal swellings containing APP immunoreactivity alone in small-caliber axons or in combination with RM014 immunoreactivity in large-caliber axons. These swellings were localized to either nodal or internodal loci and underwent progressive swelling over time, ultimately leading to secondary axotomy. Ultrastructural examination of these two classes of TAI revealed NFC together with mitochondrial dilation without organelle pooling in the RM014 single-labeled axons. However, the APP single-labeled small-caliber axons and APP/RM014 dual-labeled large-caliber axons revealed a progressive accumulation of organelles associated with increased axonal swelling over time. In contrast to previous thought, it now appears that NFC may occur independent of impaired AxT in TAI. This finding underscores the complexity of TAI, suggesting the need for multiple immunocytochemical approaches to fully assess the overall axonal response to TBI.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

Cytoskeletal architecture and immunocytochemical localization of microtubule-associated proteins in regions of axons associated with rapid axonal transport: the beta,beta'-iminodipropionitrile-intoxicated axon as a model system.

Axons from rats treated with the neurotoxic agent beta,beta'-iminodipropionitrile (IDPN) were examined by quick-freeze, deep-etch electron microscopy. Microtubules formed bundles in the central region of the axons, whereas neurofilaments were segregated to the periphery. Most membrane-bounded organelles, presumably including those involved in rapid axonal transport, were associated with the microtubule domain. The high resolution provided by quick-freeze, deep-etch electron microscopy revealed that the microtubules were coated with an extensive network of fine strands that served both to cross-link the microtubules and to interconnect them with the membrane-bounded organelles. The strands were decorated with granular materials and were irregular in dimension. They appeared either singly or as an extensive anastomosing network in fresh axons. The microtubule-associated strands were observed in fresh, saponin-extracted, or aldehyde-fixed tissue. To explore further the identity of the microtubule-associated strands, microtubules purified from brain tissue and containing the high molecular weight microtubule-associated proteins MAP 1 and MAP 2 were examined by quick-freeze, deep-etch electron microscopy. The purified microtubules were connected by a network of strands quite similar in appearance to those observed in the IDPN axons. Control microtubule preparations consisting only of tubulin and lacking the MAPs were devoid of associated strands. To learn which of the MAPs were present in the microtubule bundles in the axon, sections of axons from IDPN-treated rats were examined by immunofluorescence microscopy using antibodies to MAP 1A, MAP 1B, MAP 2, and tubulin. Anti-MAP 2 staining was only marginally detectable in the IDPN-treated axons, consistent with earlier observations. Anti-MAP 1A and anti-MAP 1B brightly stained the IDPN-treated axons, with the staining exclusively limited to the microtubule domains. Furthermore, thin section-immunoelectron microscopy using colloidal gold-labeled second antibodies revealed that both anti-MAP 1A and anti-MAP 1B stained fuzzy filamentous structures between microtubules. In view of earlier work indicating that rapid transport is associated with the microtubule domain in the IDPN-treated axon, it now appears that MAP 1A and MAP 1B may play a role in this process. We believe that MAP 1A and MAP 1B are major components of the microtubule-associated fibrillar matrix in the axon.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Critical role of axonal A-type K+ channels and axonal geometry in the gating of action potential propagation along CA3 pyramidal cell axons: a simulation study.

A model of CA3 pyramidal cell axons was used to study a new mode of gating of action potential (AP) propagation along the axon that depends on the activation of A-type K+ current (Debanne et al., 1997). The axonal membrane contained voltage-dependent Na+ channels, K+ channels, and A-type K+ channels. The density of axonal A-channels was first determined so that (1) at the resting membrane potential an AP elicited by a somatic depolarization was propagated into all axon collaterals and (2) propagation failures occurred when a brief somatic hyperpolarization preceded the AP induction. Both conditions were fulfilled only when A-channels were distributed in clusters but not when they were homogeneously distributed along the axon. Failure occurs in the proximal part of the axon. Conduction failure could be determined by a single cluster of A-channels, local decrease of axon diameter, or axonal elongation. We estimated the amplitude and temporal parameters of the hyperpolarization required for induction of a conduction block. Transient and small somatic hyperpolarizations, such as simulated GABAA inhibitory postsynaptic potentials, were able to block the AP propagation. It was shown that AP induction had to occur with a short delay (<30 msec) after the hyperpolarization. We discuss the possible conditions in which such local variations of the axon geometry and A-channel density may occur and the incidence of AP propagation failures on hippocampal network properties.

Action Potentials↗
PubMed1994

Axonal membrane-skeletal protein A60: association with a brain spectrin-binding activity and entry into cerebellar axons at a stage after the initiation of axonal growth.

A60 is a 60-kDa component of the axonal cortical cytoskeleton in CNS neurones. It appears to be neurone specific and is tightly bound to brain membranes. In this study the cytoskeletal activities and developmental expression of A60 in rat cerebellum have been examined using the monoclonal antibody DR1. A60 in a partially purified soluble extract of brain membranes interacts selectively with brain but not erythrocyte spectrin. Because erythrocyte spectrin is more closely related to the dendritic form of spectrin than the axonal form, this raises the possibility that A60 localises in axons by interaction with the axonal form of spectrin only. A60 is not found in rat cerebellum before the day of birth. However, during postnatal development of the cerebellum (days 1-13) DR1 reactivity appears progressively. On postnatal day 1, a small population of cells in the mantle layer (presumptive Purkinje cells) is DR1 positive. There is no DR1 reactivity found in Purkinje cell axons during their initial phase of growth. By postnatal day 7, Purkinje cell bodies, initial dendritic segments, and the cerebellar white matter are all positive. This pattern of labelling is strengthened up until postnatal day 13. By contrast, in adult rat cerebellum, the location of A60 has changed so that it is most concentrated in axons, and dendritic staining is lost. These data indicate that A60 is a spectrin-binding component of the adult axonal membrane skeleton, the presence of which is only required in axons after the initial phase of growth.

Aging↗
PubMed1981

Axonal transport in the central axon of sensory neurons during regeneration of their peripheral axon.

Following sciatic nerve injury (which provokes prompt regeneration of peripheral sensory axons) there was no change in the ratio between amounts of labeled protein conveyed by fast axonal transport into the central and peripheral axons. A change in composition of the transported protein, characteristic of regenerating peripheral axons, also occurred in the central axons. When the peripheral axon is injured, changes in axonal transport thus affect both processes, and there is no routing of fast-transported protein into or away from the regenerating process.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

Axonal transport of cytoskeletal proteins in oculomotor axons and their residence times in the axon terminals.

Cytoskeletal protein transport and metabolism are studied in the somatic motor and parasympathetic axons of the chicken oculomotor system. Kinetic analyses of pulse-labeled proteins indicate that the neurofilaments are transported 2-3 times more rapidly in the somatic motor axons than in the parasympathetic axons. By contrast, the transport rates of the slow component b (SCb) proteins are very similar in these axons. The parasympathetic axons terminate in the ciliary ganglion, and radiolabeling curves from the ciliary ganglion can be used to study the kinetics of cytoskeletal protein removal from the terminals. The rate of removal directly determines the residence time of the cytoskeletal proteins in the ciliary ganglion, and the residence time directly affects the shape and amplitude of the transport curves of the ganglion. A computer model was used to analyze these transport curves and to determine the half-residence time of the cytoskeletal proteins in the terminal regions. From the computer experiments, we estimate that the half-residence times of the neurofilament proteins actin and tubulin are 2, 3.5, and 7 d, respectively. The differences between the half-residence times of the cytoskeletal proteins indicate that the rate of protein removal from the terminals differs for these proteins. On the basis of these results, we propose that the removal mechanisms critically control the composition of the cytoskeleton in the terminal regions. Through their effects on its composition, the removal mechanisms have a crucial role in converting the cytoskeleton of the axon proper into the specialized cytoskeleton of the axon terminal.

Actins↗
PubMed1995

Retinal axon divergence in the optic chiasm: uncrossed axons diverge from crossed axons within a midline glial specialization.

A long-standing question is how fiber pathways in the mammalian CNS project to both sides of the brain. Static and real-time analyses of dye-labeled retinal axons (Godement et al., 1990, 1994) have demonstrated that at embryonic day 15-17 in the mouse, crossed and uncrossed axons from each eye diverge in a zone 100-200 microns proximal to the midline of the optic chiasm. In this study, we identify cellular specializations in this zone that might serve as cues for retinal axon divergence. Second, using growth cone morphology as an indicator of growth cone destination, we analyzed how crossed and uncrossed retinal growth cones related to these cellular components. Monoclonal antibody RC2, a marker for radial glia in embryonic mouse CNS, revealed a palisade of radial glia straddling the midline. At the midline, a thin raphe of cells that appear morphologically distinct from the radial glia express a free carbohydrate epitope, stage-specific embryonic antigen 1 (SSEA-1). Sections containing Dil-labeled axons and immunolabeled cells indicated that all axons enter the radial glial palisade. Uncrossed axons turn within the palisade, but never beyond the raphe of SSEA-1-positive cells. In addition, ultrastructural analysis indicated that all growth cones contact radial glia, with projections of the growth cone interdigitating with glial fibers. These results demonstrate that retinal axons diverge within a cellular specialization centered around the midline of the developing optic chiasm, consistent with the hypothesis that cues for divergence are located in this zone.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Axonal neurofilaments are nonessential elements of toxicant-induced reductions in fast axonal transport: video-enhanced differential interference microscopy in peripheral nervous system axons.

Neurofilament modification and accumulation, occurring in toxicant-induced neuropathies, has been proposed to compromise fast axonal transport and contribute to neurological symptoms or pathology. The current study compares the effects of the neurotoxicants acrylamide (ACR) and 2,5-hexanedione (2,5-HD) on the quantity of fast, bidirectional vesicular traffic within isolated mouse sciatic nerve axons from transgenic mice lacking axonal neurofilaments (Eyer and Peterson, Neuron 12, 1-20, 1994) and nontransgenic littermates possessing neurofilaments. Fast anterograde and retrograde membrane bound organelle (MBO) traffic was quantitated within axons, before and after toxicant exposure, using video-enhanced differential interference contrast (AVEC-DIC) microscopy. Addition of 0.7 mM ACR to the buffer bathing the nerve produced a time-dependent reduction in bidirectional transport with a similar time to onset and magnitude in both transgenic and nontransgenic mice. 2,5-HD (4 mM) exposure reduced bidirectional vesicle traffic by a similar amount in both transgenic and nontransgenic animals. The time to onset of the transport reduction was less and the magnitude of the reduction was greater with 2,5-HD compared to ACR. A single 10-min exposure to ACR or 2,5-HD produced a similar reduction in transport to that produced by prolonged (1 h) exposure. Nonneurotoxic propionamide or 3,4-hexanedione (3,4-HD) produced no changes in bidirectional transport in either transgenic or nontransgenic animals. We conclude that ACR or 2,5-HD produces a rapid, saturable, nonreversible, neurotoxicant-specific reduction in fast bidirectional transport within isolated peripheral nerve axons. These actions are mediated through direct modification of axonal component(s), which are independent of toxicant-induced modifications of, or accumulations of, neurofilaments.

Acrylamide↗
PubMed1992

Regeneration of adult rat CNS axons into peripheral nerve autografts: ultrastructural studies of the early stages of axonal sprouting and regenerative axonal growth.

If one end of a segment of peripheral nerve is inserted into the brain or spinal cord, neuronal perikarya in the vicinity of the graft tip can be labelled with retrogradely transported tracers applied to the distal end of the graft several weeks later, showing that CNS axons can regenerate into and along such grafts. We have used transmission EM to examine some of the cellular responses that underlie this regenerative phenomenon, particularly its early stages. Segments of autologous peroneal or tibial nerve were inserted vertically into the thalamus of anaesthetized adult albino rats. The distal end of the graft was left beneath the scalp. Between five days and two months later the animals were killed and the brains prepared for ultrastructural study. Semi-thin and thin sections through the graft and surrounding brain were examined at two levels 6-7 mm apart in all animals: close to the tip of the graft in the thalamus (proximal graft) and at the top of the cerebral cortex (distal graft). In another series of animals with similar grafts, horseradish peroxidase was applied to the distal end of the graft 24-48 h before death. Examination by LM of appropriately processed serial coronal sections of the brains from these animals confirmed that up to several hundred neurons were retrogradely labelled in the thalamus, particularly in the thalamic reticular nucleus. Between five and 14 days after grafting, large numbers of tiny (0.05-0.20 microns diameter) nonmyelinated axonal profiles, considered to be axonal sprouts, were observed by EM within the narrow zone of abnormal thalamic parenchyma bordering the graft. The sprouts were much more numerous (commonly in large fascicles), smoother surfaced, and more rounded than nonmyelinated axons further from the graft or in corresponding areas on the contralateral side of animals with implants or in normal animals. At longer post-graft survival times, the number of such axons in the parenchyma around the graft declined. At five days, some axonal sprouts had entered the junctional zone between the brain and the graft. By eight days there were many sprouts in the junctional zone and some had penetrated the proximal graft to lie between its basal lamina-enclosed columns of Schwann cells, macrophages and myelin debris. Within the brain, sprouts were in contact predominantly with other sprouts but also with all types of glial cell.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Reelin-immunoreactive neurons, axons, and neuropil in the adult ferret brain: evidence for axonal secretion of reelin in long axonal pathways.

Reelin is a large secretable protein which, when developmentally defective, causes the reeler brain malformation in mice and a recessive form of lissencephaly with cerebellar hypoplasia in humans. In addition, Reelin is heavily expressed throughout the adult brain, although its function/s there are still poorly understood. To gain insight into which adult neuronal circuits may be under the influence of Reelin, we systematically mapped Reelin-immunoreactive neuronal somata, axons, and neuropil in the brain and brainstem of ferrets. Results show that Reelin immunoreactivity is found in widespread but specific sets of neuronal bodies, axonal tracts, and gray matter neuropil regions. Depending on the region, the immunoreactive neuronal somata correspond to interneurons, projection neurons, or both. Some well-defined axonal projection systems are immunoreactive, whereas most other white matter tracts are unlabeled. The labeled pathways include, among others, the lateral olfactory tract, the entorhinohippocampal (perforant) pathway, the retroflex bundle, and the stria terminalis. Labeled axons in these tracts contain large numbers of discrete, very small, immunoreactive particles, suggestive of secretory vesicles under the light microscope. The neuropil in the terminal arborization fields of these axons is also heavily immunoreactive. Taken together, our observations are consistent with the notion that some neurons may anterogradely transport Reelin along their axons in large membrane-bound secretory vesicles (Derer et al. [2001] J. Comp. Neurol. 440:136-143) and secrete it into their terminal arborization fields, which may be quite distant from the somata synthesizing the protein. These findings have implications for identifying where Reelin acts in adult brain circuits.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Flamingo regulates R8 axon-axon and axon-target interactions in the Drosophila visual system.

Photoreceptors (R cells) in the Drosophila retina connect to targets in three distinct layers of the optic lobe of the brain: R1-R6 connect to the lamina, and R7 and R8 connect to distinct layers in the medulla. In each of these layers, R axon termini are arranged in evenly spaced topographic arrays. In a genetic screen for mutants with abnormal R cell connectivity, we recovered mutations in flamingo (fmi). fmi encodes a seven-transmembrane cadherin, previously shown to function in planar cell polarity and in dendritic patterning. Here, we show that fmi has two specific functions in R8 axon targeting: it facilitates competitive interactions between adjacent R8 axons to ensure their correct spacing, and it promotes the formation of stable connections between R8 axons and their target cells in the medulla. The former suggests a general role for Fmi in establishing nonoverlapping dendritic and axonal target fields. The latter, together with the finding that N-Cadherin has an analogous role in R7 axon-target interactions, points to a cadherin-based system for target layer specificity in the Drosophila visual system.

Alleles↗
PubMed1998

Axonal transport of mutant superoxide dismutase 1 and focal axonal abnormalities in the proximal axons of transgenic mice.

Superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1), a ubiquitously expressed enzyme, detoxifies superoxide radicals and participates in copper homeostasis. Mutations in this enzyme have been linked to a subset of autosomal dominant cases of familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (FALS), a disorder characterized by selective degeneration of motor neurons. Transgenic mice expressing FALS mutant human (Hu) SOD1 at high levels develop a motor neuron disease, indicating that mutant Hu SOD1 gains properties that are particularly toxic to motor neurons. In this report, we demonstrate that transgenic mice expressing Hu SOD1 with the G37R FALS mutation, but not mice expressing wild-type enzyme, develop focal increases in immunoreactivity in the proximal axons of spinal motor neurons. This SOD1 immunoreactivity and immunoreactivity to hypophosphorylated neurofilament H epitopes are found adjacent to small vacuoles in axons. Using metabolic radiolabeling methods, we show that mutant G37R HuSOD1 as well as endogenous mouse SOD1 are transported anterograde in slow component b in motor and sensory axons of the sciatic nerve. Together, these findings suggest that anterogradely transported mutant SOD1 may act locally to damage motor axons.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Interaction between serotonergic and noradrenergic axons during axonal regeneration.

The present experiments focused on the morphological interaction between serotonergic (5-HT) and noradrenergic (NA) axons during regeneration following partial axonal denervation in the cerebral cortex in adult rats. The denervation paradigm used employed two neurotoxins, one for 5-HT and one for NA axons, infused together at one cortical site while a single neurotoxin to either 5-HT or NA was infused at the symmetrical cortical site in the other hemisphere. This treatment enabled us to assess the role of 5-HT or NA axons in the regeneration of the other monoaminergic axon. 5-HT axon regeneration became apparent as early as 28 days after the toxin injection, whereas the regeneration of NA axons was not evident even at 60 days after the toxin injection. Since NA axons revealed marked regeneration in the cortical site with denervation of 5-HT axons, intact 5-HT axons may be inhibitory on the regeneration of NA axons. In contrast, since the regeneration of 5-HT axons was suppressed in the absence of NA axons, NA axons appear to exert a facilitatory effect on 5-HT axon regeneration. These results suggest that the role of 5-HT axons in the regeneration of NA axons is opposite to that of NA axons in the regeneration of 5-HT axons. In addition, the regeneration of 5-HT axons occurred much faster than that of NA axons in response to axonal damage. The differential roles of 5-HT and NA axons in axonal regeneration may play a role in a variety of physiological functions related to these monoamines and possibly in the pathophysiology of clinical depression.

5,6-Dihydroxytryptamine↗