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PubMed2002

Valuing snorkeling visits to the Florida Keys with stated and revealed preference models.

Coastal coral reefs, especially in the Florida Keys, are declining at a disturbing rate. Marine ecologists and reef scientists have emphasized the importance of establishing nonmarket values of coral reefs to assess the cost effectiveness of coral reef management and remediation programs. The purpose of this paper is to develop a travel cost-contingent valuation model of demand for trips to the Florida Keys focusing on willingness to pay (WTP) to preserve the current water quality and health of the coral reefs. The stated and revealed preference models allow the marginal valuation of recreationists to adjust depending on current and planned trip commitments in valuing nonmarginal policy changes in recreational opportunities. The integrated model incorporates key factors for establishing baseline amenity values for tourist dive sites, including perceptions of reef quality and dive conditions, the role of substitute sites, and the quality and availability of tourist facilities and recreation opportunities. The travel cost and WTP model differ in identifying critical variables and provide insight into the adjustment of trip decisions across alternative destination sites and the valuation of trips. In contrast to the travel cost model, a measure of the availability of substitute sites and total recreation activities does not have a significant impact on WTP valuations reported by snorkelers. Snorkelers engage in a relatively focused set of activities, suggesting that these recreationists may not shift expenditures to other sites or other recreation activities in the Florida Keys when confronted with increased access costs for the snorkeling experience.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Quantifying forest visibility with spatial data.

We use spatial data representing transportation networks, elevation, stand height, and recreation use to construct and compare models of recreation use patterns and visibility in a forest. The recreation use pattern model depicts use frequencies along travel corridors. The visibility model quantifies visibility for all forest areas. We find that the models provide different but complementary types of information. Forest managers who are involved in scheduling harvest operations and want to address the visual concerns of forest visitors may benefit most from the visibility model. Managers who wish to know more about travel patterns or to reroute forest visitors affected by operations may benefit from the use pattern model. A combination of the two models has the highest potential for providing planning assistance in multiple-use forests. Both models may be able to enhance visual resource management (VRM) systems already in use by providing spatially explicit recreation use and visibility data.

Air Pollution↗
PubMed2005

Do scientists and fishermen collect the same size fish? Possible implications for exposure assessment.

Recreational and subsistence fishing plays a major role in the lives of many people, although most Americans obtain their fish from supermarkets or other commercial sources. Fish consumption has generally increased in recent years, largely because of the nutritional benefits. Recent concerns about contaminants in fish have prompted federal and state agencies to analyze fish (especially freshwater fish targeted by recreational anglers) for contaminants, such as mercury and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and to issue fish consumption advisories to help reduce the public health risks, where warranted. Scientists engaged in environmental sampling collect fish by a variety of means, and analyze the contaminants in those fish. Risk assessors use these levels as the basis for their advisories. Two assumptions of this methodology are that scientists collect the same size (and types) of fish that fishermen catch, and that, for some contaminants (such as methylmercury and PCBs), levels increase with the size and age of the fish. While many studies demonstrate a positive relationship between size and mercury levels in a wide range of different species of fish, the assumption that scientists collect the same size fish as fishermen has not been examined. The assumption that scientists collect the same size fish as those caught (and eaten) by recreationalists or subsistence fishermen is extremely important because contaminant levels are different in different size fish. In this article, we test the null hypothesis that there are no differences in the sizes of fish collected by Aleut fishermen, scientists (including divers), and commercial trawlers in the Bering Sea from Adak to Kiska. Aleut fishermen caught fish using rod-and-reel (fishing rods, hook, and fresh bait) from boats, as they would in their Aleutian villages. The scientists collected fish using rod-and-reel, as well as by scuba divers using spears up to 90 ft depths. A fisheries biologist collected fish from a research/commercial trawler operated under charter to the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The fish selected for sampling, including those caught commercially in the Bering Sea, represented different trophic levels, and are species regularly caught by Aleuts while fishing near their villages. Not all fish were caught by all three groups. There were no significant differences in length and weight for five species of fish caught by Aleuts, scientists, and fisheries trawls, and for an additional 3 species caught only by the Aleut and scientist teams. There were small, but significant, differences in the sizes of rock greenling (Hexagrammos lagocephalus) and red Irish lord (Hemilepidotus hemilepidotus) caught by the scientist and Aleut fishermen. No scientists caught rock greenling using poles; those speared by the divers were significantly smaller than those caught by the Aleuts. Further, there were no differences in the percent of males in the samples as a function of fishing method or type of fishermen, except for rockfish and red Irish lord. These data suggest that if scientists collect fish in the same manner as subsistence fishermen (in this case, using fishing rods from boats), they can collect the same-sized fish. The implications for exposure and risk assessment are that scientists should either engage subsistence and recreational fishermen to collect fish for analysis, or mimic their fishing methods to ensure that the fish collected are similar in size and weight to those being caught and consumed by these groups. Further, total length, standard length, and weight were highly correlated for all species of fish, suggesting that risk assessors could rely on recreational and commercial fishermen to measure total lengths for the purpose of correlating mercury levels with known size/mercury level relationships. Our data generally demonstrate that the scientists and trawlers can collect the same size fish as those caught by Aleuts, making contaminant analysis, and subsequent contaminant analysis, representative of the risks to fish consumers.

Alaska↗
PubMed2003

Wildfire effects on hiking and biking demand in New Mexico: a travel cost study.

We use a travel cost model to test the effects of wild and prescribed fire on visitation by hikers and mountain bikers in New Mexico. Our results indicate that net benefits for mountain bikers is $150 per trip and that they take an average of 6.2 trips per year. Hikers take 2.8 trips per year with individual net benefits per trip of $130. Both hikers' and mountain bikers' demand functions react adversely to prescribed burning. Net benefits for both groups fall as areas recover from prescribed burns. Because both visitation and annual recreation benefits decrease to these two types of visitors, this gives rise to multiple use costs associated with prescribed burning. With respect to wildfire, hikers and mountain bikers both exhibit decreased visitation as areas recover from wildfires, however, only hikers indicate an increase in per trip net benefits. Bikers' demand effectively drops to zero. These results differ from previous findings in the literature and have implications for efficient implementation of the National Fire Plan and whether prescribed burning is a cost effective tool for multiple use management of National Forests. Specifically, that fire and recreation managers cannot expect recreation users to react similarly to fire across recreation activities, or different geographic regions. What is cost effective in one region may not be so in another.

Bicycling↗
PubMed2002

The relative influence of individual, social and physical environment determinants of physical activity.

Environmental determinants of health are receiving growing attention in the literature, although there is little empirical research in this area. The Study on Environmental and Individual Determinants of Physical Activity (known as the SEID project) was a social ecological project that examined the relative influence of individual, social environmental and physical environmental determinants of recreational physical activity. It involved a community survey of 1803 healthy workers and home-makers aged 18-59 years living in a 408 km2 area of metropolitan Perth, Western Australia. Physical environmental determinants were mainly conceptualised as spatial access to popular recreational facilities. Overall, 59% of respondents exercised as recommended. Recreational facilities located near home were used by more respondents than facilities located elsewhere. The most frequently used facilities were informal: the streets (45.6%); public open space (28.8%) and the beach (22.7%). The physical environment's directs the influence on exercising as recommended was found to be secondary to individual and social environmental determinants. Nevertheless, accessible facilities determined whether or not they were used and in this way, support and enhance the achievement of recommended levels of physical activity behaviour by providing opportunities. The results suggest that access to a supportive physical environment is necessary, but may be insufficient to increase recommended levels of physical activity in the community. Complementary strategies are required that aim to influence individual and social environmental factors. Given the popularity of walking in the community, it is recommended that greater emphasis be placed on creating streetscapes that enhance walking for recreation and transport.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1999

WOMAC Osteoarthritis Index--additional dimensions for use in subjects with post-traumatic osteoarthritis of the knee. Western Ontario and MacMaster Universities.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the sensitivity of WOMAC and the two added dimensions Sport and Recreation Function and Knee Related Quality of Life in subjects with radiographic knee OA to that in controls. To study the influence of age on the reported outcomes. DESIGN: Outcomes were compared between subjects having had meniscectomy 21 years ago and which at time of follow-up had definite radiographic OA (N=41, mean age 57), and age- and sex-matched controls without radiographic OA (N=50, mean age 53). For the purpose of studying the impact of age, the groups were divided in two age groups, younger and older than 50 years, respectively. Close to 50% of both groups reported current physical activity levels of at least recreational golf, dancing, hiking, etc. Symptoms and function were assessed by WOMAC Osteoarthritis Index and the added dimensions Sport and Recreational Function (Sport/Rec) and Knee Related Quality of Life (QOL). A percentage score was calculated, 0 indicating extreme knee problems and 100 indicating no knee problems. RESULTS: The control group had mean scores of 88-98 for the different dimensions. The OA group scored significantly lower in all dimensions (P< 0.0001). The most discriminative dimensions in both age groups were Sport/Rec and QOL with mean scores of 52 and 59 (ranges 0-100). CONCLUSION: The dimensions Sport and Recreation Function, and Knee Related QOL were highly sensitive and discriminant outcomes in both age groups and should be assessed in addition to WOMAC in subjects with post-traumatic osteoarthritis of the knee.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Stewardship and future land use at a Department of Energy site: does self-interest determine ratings?

Based on studies at several Department of Energy sites and Superfund sites, as well as elsewhere, it is clear that people prefer that contaminated lands be restored to usable land. Knowing the future uses for such land can inform environmental cleanup and restoration decision making, often determining the level of cleanup, costs, future management, and stewardship. This article examines the relationship between general environmental attitudes, future land use preferences, and recreational activities for people living around the Department of Energy's Savannah River Site in South Carolina. There were few differences in the rating for general environmental problems as a function of recreational activities. Although future land use ratings were generally correlated with the number of days people engaged in particular activities (hunting, fishing, hiking, camping), people who hunted and fished rated nearly every recreational activity higher than did people who only camped or hiked, or than those who engaged in no outdoor activities. Thus, campers and hikers did not rate camping and hiking higher as future land uses than did other groups. These data suggest that there is widespread support for recreational activities as future uses for the Savannah River Site, regardless of whether people participate in them or not, and that current cleanup and stewardship decisions should consider these views.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Climatic effect on water quality evaluation.

An advisory discouraging swimming and other primary contact recreation in Lake Pontchartrain was issued in 1985 by the Louisiana Department of Health and Hospitals (LDHH). The advisory is still in effect today for the south shore area of the lake and names fecal coliform bacteria as the causative pollutant. The suspected source of the contamination in this area is urban stormwater runoff that is collected and pumped to the lake and may be contaminated by sanitary sewer cross-flows. A water quality shoreline study was initiated in the south shore area of the lake in New Orleans by the Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering at the University of New Orleans (UNO). The objective was to determine if the reduced bacteria levels are a result of decreased pollution or if this is a temporary phenomenon caused by a short-term climatic effect. Five monitoring stations were selected for study on the basis of proximity to drainage canals that discharge the stormwater runoff and current or previous use for primary contact recreation. Fecal coliform concentrations was found to be "wet" weather-dependent at all stations except one. There appears to be an active continuous bacteria source near this site since fecal coliform levels there cannot be directly linked to urban runoff. For the remaining areas a general rule of thumb for recreational use of these south shore water is that the user should assume that the water is unsuitable for primary contact recreation, especially in the near vicinity of urban drainage canals, for at least two to three days following a storm event. Precipitation analysis showed a reduction in mean total annual rainfall during the study period amounting to nearly one-third of the typical mean total annual rainfall for the area. Therefore, lower fecal coliform concentrations observed may be due to uncharacteristic drought conditions rather than decreased pollution.

Cities↗
PubMed1995

Physical activity and survival from breast cancer.

The association between recreational physical activity and survival from breast cancer was investigated in a population-based cohort of breast cancer patients in Adelaide, South Australia. These patients, aged 20-74 years at diagnosis, had been recruited between 1982 and 1984 into a case-control study of diet, hormones and breast cancer. Of the 451 patients with breast cancer originally enrolled, 412 were followed for a median interval of 5.5 years. The study participants reported their weekly levels of light, moderate and vigorous recreational physical activity, which were then converted into estimates of kilocalories per week of energy expenditure. Despite some fluctuation in the hazard ratios by level of physical activity, there was little evidence for an association between total recreational physical activity and risk of death from breast cancer overall, or within menopausal strata. Similarly, there was little evidence for associations between individual types of recreational physical activity and risk of death from breast cancer.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

The effects of animal-assisted therapy on anxiety ratings of hospitalized psychiatric patients.

OBJECTIVE: Animal-assisted therapy involves interaction between patients and a trained animal, along with its human owner or handler, with the aim of facilitating patients' progress toward therapeutic goals. This study examined whether a session of animal-assisted therapy reduced the anxiety levels of hospitalized psychiatric patients and whether any differences in reductions in anxiety were associated with patients' diagnoses. METHODS: Study subjects were 230 patients referred for therapeutic recreation sessions. A pre- and posttreatment crossover study design was used to compare the effects of a single animal-assisted therapy session with those of a single regularly scheduled therapeutic recreation session. Before and after participating in the two types of sessions, subjects completed the state scale of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, a self-report measure of anxiety currently felt. A mixed-models repeated-measures analysis was used to test differences in scores from before and after the two types of sessions. RESULTS: Statistically significant reductions in anxiety scores were found after the animal-assisted therapy session for patients with psychotic disorders, mood disorders, and other disorders, and after the therapeutic recreation session for patients with mood disorders. No statistically significant differences in reduction of anxiety were found between the two types of sessions. CONCLUSIONS: Animal-assisted therapy was associated with reduced state anxiety levels for hospitalized patients with a variety of psychiatric diagnoses, while a routine therapeutic recreation session was associated with reduced levels only for patients with mood disorders.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Stress-related behaviors among horses used in a therapeutic riding program.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether therapeutic riding resulted in higher levels of stress or frustration for horses than did recreational riding and whether therapeutic riding with at-risk individuals was more stressful for the horses than was therapeutic riding with individuals with physical or emotional handicaps. DESIGN: Observational study. ANIMALS: 14 horses in a therapeutic riding program. PROCEDURE: An ethogram of equine behaviors was created, and horses were observed while ridden by 5 groups of riders (recreational riders, physically handicapped riders, psychologically handicapped riders, at risk children, and special education children). Number of stress-related behaviors (ears pinned back, head raised, head turned, head tossed, head shaken, head down, and defecation) was compared among groups. RESULTS: No significant differences in mean number of stress-related behaviors were found when horses were ridden by recreational riders, physically handicapped riders, psychologically handicapped riders, or special education children. However, mean number of stress-related behaviors was significantly higher when horses were ridden by the at-risk children. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggest that for horses in a therapeutic riding program, being ridden by physically or psychologically handicapped individuals is no more stressful for the horses than is being ridden in the same setting by recreational riders. However, at-risk children caused more stress to the horses, suggesting that the time horses are ridden by at-risk children should be limited both daily and weekly.

Adult↗
PubMed1987

TIP-OFF: a new model for interagency networking.

In an era where funding for social service and related agencies is becoming increasingly scarce, the sharing of staff, resources, and expertise between multiple agencies is one way to compensate and by so doing, improve therapeutic recreation service delivery. This concept, known as networking, is one that was adopted by a group of agencies located in Toledo, Ohio. Through the communication of recreation and recreation related staff, these agencies have joined to provide therapeutic recreation programs and services to children and youth in the area. This article examines the concept of interagency programming and provides a historical discussion of the program's formation, the present services offered, as well as its applicability to other agencies and areas.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[The concept and program of health improvement for children and teenagers].

Described in the paper is the activity of the Russian national children's recreation facility "Orlenok", where up to 16 000 children (mainly teenagers) come annually for recreation and recovery. Information on history, evolution as well on the structure of health-improving, preventive and educational measures is presented. The major provisions and stages of the Concept of development of "Orlenok"--a recreational, methodological, medical and cultural facility--are defined. The recreational facility is regarded as an experimental center, where pilot projects targeted at health improvement and prevention of diseases among the growing generation are tested.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Exercise and changes in health status in patients with ankylosing spondylitis.

BACKGROUND: Although exercise is a commonly recommended treatment for ankylosing spondylitis (AS), little is known about the effectiveness of unsupervised recreational and back exercises. We examined the effects of recreational exercise and back exercises on patient-reported pain severity, stiffness severity, and functional disability in a prospective longitudinal study of 220 patients with AS. METHODS: Participants provided information on exercise habits and health status every 6 months using mailed questionnaires (median follow-up, 4.5 years). Pain severity and stiffness severity were measured using visual analog scales, and functional disability was measured using the Health Assessment Questionnaire (HAQ) Disability Index. RESULTS: Among all patients, there were no associations between either the number of exercise minutes per week or the number of days of back exercise per week and short-term (6-month) changes in pain, stiffness, or HAQ Disability Index. However, among those who had AS for 15 years or less, pain scores were 0.18 points lower (on a scale of 0-3; P =.04), and stiffness scores were 6.4 points lower (on a scale of 0-100; P =.005) during periods with more than 200 minutes per week of exercise compared with periods with 0 to 30 minutes of exercise per week. Among those who had AS for more than 15 years, pain scores were 0.11 points lower (on a scale of 0-3; P =. 03), and HAQ Disability Indexes were 0.08 points lower (on a scale of 0-3; P<.001) during periods with 5 to 7 days per week of back exercise compared with periods when back exercises were not performed. Less intense levels of exercise were not associated with improvements in health status. CONCLUSIONS: Unsupervised recreational exercise improves pain and stiffness, and back exercise improves pain and function in patients with AS, but these effects differ with the duration of AS. Health status is improved when patients perform recreational exercise at least 30 minutes per day and back exercises at least 5 days per week. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:2969-2975

Adult↗
PubMed2001

How are mood and exercise related? Results from the Finnmark study.

BACKGROUND: Recreational exercise and mood have frequently been correlated in population studies. Although it is often assumed that recreational exercise improves mood, this has not been consistently demonstrated in population studies. METHOD: The relationship between mood and exercise was studied prospectively in a community sample. A series of synchronous panel models was constructed in two samples (2798 paired observations; sample I = 1219, sample II = 1498) to examine this relationship in the entire population, for women and men separately, for those with sedentary occupations, for those performing physical labour, and for those who initially showed a more dysphoric mood. RESULTS: Although mood and exercise were correlated, the only directional relationship that could be demonstrated was that recreational exercise had an inconsistently positive effect upon mood in those with sedentary occupations. There was no such relationship between doing physical work and mood. Analyses of those who initially showed higher levels of dysphoria did not uncover any directional relationship between mood and exercise. None of the other subgroups showed any directional effects between mood and recreational exercise, nor did the population as a whole. CONCLUSION: The relationship between exercise and mood in this population sample appears to be largely correlational in nature. This result suggests the need to take a cautious view of the role played by exercise in promoting mood in the general population.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Ecstasy (MDMA): a review of its possible persistent psychological effects.

RATIONALE: Recreational use of "ecstasy" (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine; MDMA) has become increasingly widespread. Until recently, however, little was known about the possible persistent psychological effects of extensive use of this drug. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present review is to evaluate recent empirical evidence concerning the persistent psychological sequelae of recreational ecstasy use. METHODS: The methodologies of open trial studies of recreational ecstasy users are evaluated and reports of the presence or absence of persistent psychological problems are related to the extent of past exposure to ecstasy. RESULTS: There is growing evidence that chronic, heavy, recreational use of ecstasy is associated with sleep disorders, depressed mood, persistent elevation of anxiety, impulsiveness and hostility, and selective impairment of episodic memory, working memory and attention. There is tentative evidence that these cognitive deficits persist for at least 6 months after abstinence, whereas anxiety and hostility remit after a year of abstinence. The possibility that some of these psychological problems are caused by ecstasy-induced neurotoxicity is supported by preclinical evidence of MDMA-induced neurotoxicity and behavioural deficits, evidence of depleted serotonin in heavy ecstasy users, and by dose-response relationships between the extent of exposure to ecstasy and the severity of cognitive impairments. CONCLUSIONS: An increasing number of young, heavy ecstasy users are at significant risk of persistent cognitive impairments and disturbances of affect and personality. Some of these problems may remit after abstinence, but residual neurotoxicity and decline of serotonergic function with age may result in recurrent psychopathology and premature cognitive decline.

Affect↗
PubMed1997

Benzodiazepine self-administration in humans and laboratory animals--implications for problems of long-term use and abuse.

Drug reinforcement may represent the primary behavioral-pharmacological mechanism underlying two types of problematic use of benzodiazepines--recreational abuse by polydrug abusers and inappropriate chronic use by patients. High dose polydrug abuse for the purpose of getting high is readily recognized as a significant social problem. Inappropriate chronic benzodiazepine use is more subtle but relatively common: for anxiolytics, 36% of past-year users (3% of the adult population in the US) report using these drugs for 4 consecutive months or longer. The risks of such long-term use are much better documented than the benefits. This paper provides a current review of various problems that have been identified with the long-term use and the recreational abuse of benzodiazepines, including memory impairment, risk of accidents, falls and hip fractures in the elderly, a withdrawal syndrome, brain damage, overuse in the elderly, overuse by chronic pain patients, overuse by alcoholics and recreational abuse among alcoholics and polydrug abusers. A comprehensive review of the literature on benzodiazepine reinforcing effects in humans and laboratory animals is also provided. Drug self-administration studies in humans and laboratory animals provide models of both types of problematic benzodiazepine use. Recreational abuse of benzodiazepines has been modeled in human research with polydrug abusers and in laboratory animal studies, which show that the reinforcing effect of benzodiazepines is intermediate relative to other sedative compounds and is increased in subjects with histories of previous sedative drug self-administration. The problem of inappropriate long-term use of benzodiazepines by people without histories of drug abuse has been partially modeled in human studies showing that benzodiazepines function as reinforcers in subjects with anxiety, insomnia, and histories of moderate alcohol consumption, and in preclinical studies showing stable, low-rate benzodiazepine self-injection with concurrent physical dependence under conditions of continuous availability. Both human and animal research suggests that the drug history and current behavioral context may be important in the establishment of benzodiazepines as reinforcers. Limited human and animal research provides little support for the common belief that physical dependence enhances benzodiazepine reinforcement.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Impact of fencing on the recovery of the ground flora on heavily eroded slopes of a deciduous forest.

This paper seeks to outline early stages in the recovery of forest ground flora on eroded slopes impacted by recreation activities and to suggest how these data might be applied in the formulation of management policies for forest recreation areas. Based on a fencing experiment in the Sonian Forest near Brussels, we investigated whether, over a 6-year period, the vegetation was able to recover after having been destroyed by recreation use. Short-term trends in overall species composition were already observable during this 6-year study. Species recovery on eroded hills was related to slope, aspect, and soil type. During the considered time scale, the proportion of hemicryptophytes and the number of ancient forest species increased significantly. A downward trend was detected for Ellenberg's nitrogen and temperature indexes and for the proportion of therophytes and pioneer plants of disturbed places. Changes in species' frequencies suggest six recovery strategies: early, late, expanding, disappearing, transient, and fluctuating species. Aside from seedling reproduction from overstory influences, Luzula sylvatica appeared to be the most resilient of the species identified in the study since this species has the highest global frequency in our sampling plots and has increased its cover during the study period. Study results indicate that (1) protection from recreation has initiated the recovery of species in the herb layer, but (2) it may take a long time before vegetation previously present in the ground flora may recover in both density and species composition.

Conservation of Natural Resources↗