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PubMed2005

Kinetics of swelling of polyether-modified poly(acrylic acid) microgels with permanent and degradable cross-links.

Spherical particles of 50-100 mum size composed of poly(acrylic acid) networks covalently bonded to Pluronic polyether copolymers were tested for swelling in aqueous media. The microgels were cross-linked either by permanent ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA) cross-links alone or by EDGMA together with reversible disulfide or biodegradable azoaromatic cross-links. Optimum conditions for a rapid, diffusion-limited swelling of the pH- and temperature-sensitive microgels with nondegradable cross-links were found. The microgels cross-linked by disulfide groups and equilibrium-swollen in the buffer solution exhibited degradation-limited kinetics of swelling under physiological conditions, with a first-order reaction constant, k(1), linearly proportional to the concentration of reducing agents such as dithiotreitol and tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine (TCEP). A severalfold faster swelling in the presence of more powerful reducing agent, TCEP, was observed, indicating the chemical specificity of the microgel swelling. The reoxidation of the thiol groups into disulfide cross-links by sodium hypochlorite led to the restoration of the microgels' diameter measured prior to the reduction-reoxidation cycle, which confirms the shape memory of the microgels. Enzymatically degradable azoaromatic cross-links enabled slow microgel swelling due to degradation of the cross-links by azoreductases from the rat intestinal cecum. The low rate of swelling of the Pluronic-containing microgels can enable sustained drug release in colon-specific drug delivery.

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PubMed2005

Equilibrium and kinetic aspects of the uptake of poly(ethylene oxide) by copolymer microgel particles of N-isopropylacrylamide and acrylic acid.

The use of microgels for controlled uptake and release has been an area of active research for many years. In this work copolymer microgels of N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAM) and acrylic acid (AAc), containing different concentrations of AAc and also cross-linking monomer, have been prepared and characterized. These microgels are responsive to pH and temperature. As well as monitoring the equilibrium response to changes in these variables, the rates of swelling/de-swelling of the microgel particles, on changing either the pH or the temperature, have also been investigated. It is shown that the rate of de-swelling of the microgel particles containing AAc is much faster than the rate of swelling, on changing the pH appropriately. This is explained in terms of the relative mobilities of the H(+) and Na(+) ions, in and out of the particles. It was observed that the microgels containing AAc, at pH 8, de-swelled relatively slowly on heating to 50 degrees C from 20 degrees C. This is attributed to the resistance to collapse associated with the large increase in counterion concentration inside the microgel particles. The swelling and de-swelling properties of these copolymer microgels have also been investigated in aqueous poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) solutions, of different MW (2000-300 000). The corresponding absorbed amounts of PEO from solution onto the microgels have also been determined using a depletion method. The results, as a function of AAc content, cross-linker concentration, PEO MW, pH, and temperature, have been rationalized in terms of the ease and depth of penetration of the PEO chains into the various microgel particles and also the H-bonding associations between PEO and either the -COOH of the AAc moeities and/or the H of the amide groups (much weaker). Finally, the adsorption and desorption of the PEO molecules in to and out of the microgel particles have been shown to be extremely slow compared to normal diffusion time scales for polymer adsorption onto rigid surfaces.

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PubMed2005

Association of octyl-modified poly(acrylic acid) onto unilamellar vesicles of lipids and kinetics of vesicle disruption.

Water-soluble polymers containing a few hydrophobic anchors are known to bind onto lipid vesicles and are used as stabilizers of liposome-based formulas. In contrast, polymers with high hydrophobicity destabilize the lipid bilayers. With macromolecules of intermediate hydrophobic/hydrophilic balance, a gradual sweep of the stabilization-destabilization capacity can be achieved and is considered as promising triggered systems for drug release, although the mechanism of permeabilization and membrane breakage using polymers is essentially conjectural to date. As a model system, we used short octyl-modified poly(acrylic acid)s (MW 8000 g/mol) sensitive to pH, temperature, and ionic strength in conjunction with small unilamellar vesicles mainly comprised of DPPC or egg-PC. Kinetics of vesicle fragmentation was followed using static and dynamic light scattering. Polymer adsorption was studied by nonradiative energy transfer between pyrene-labeled lipids and a naphthalene-modified polymer. The permeability of the vesicles was characterized by calcein leakage experiments. The key findings were (i) the lack of coupling between the density of bound polymer and the rate of disruption and (ii) the qualitative difference depending on whether the polymer contains or not isopropyl side groups. Point i relates to the increase of the rate of polymer adsorption with increasing bulk polymer concentration, while the breakage is essentially unaffected. Point ii relates to the stabilization of large membrane fragments (Stokes radius ca. 40 nm) in the presence of a polymer with no isopropyl side groups, while micelle-like assemblies (Stokes radius 8 nm) containing the lipids are obtained with an isopropyl-containing polymer of similar hydrophobicity. Both polymers display similar efficiency at disrupting small vesicles. The mechanism of polymer-induced disruption appears to differ markedly from the disruption steps now recognized for conventional (molecular) surfactant and is discussed on the basis of data obtained with different membrane fluidity, polymer structure, concentration, and hydrophilicity.

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PubMed2004

Surface modification of an ethylene-acrylic acid copolymer film: grafting amine-terminated linear and branched architectures.

Polymer films can be tailored for a specific application by modifying their surface properties. In this study, linear and branched architectures were grafted to ethylene-acrylic acid (EAA) copolymer films using the so-called grafting from approach. Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide was used to activate the carboxylic acid functionality on the surface of the EAA copolymer film before reacting it with selected di- and tri-amine compounds. The carboxylic acid functionality was subsequently regenerated by reacting the amine-grafted film with succinic anhydride. These reaction steps were then repeated to create the linear and branched architectures on the EAA film surface. The film surface resulting from each reaction step was analyzed using attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy and contact angle measurements. A systematic analysis of the ATR-FTIR results was performed to estimate the average conversion of the reaction schemes and to explain the observed contact angle results. A significant reduction in water contact angle for the EAA film grafted with a branched architecture was observed. The EAA film grafted with a linear architecture showed a marginal reduction in water contact angle when ethanol was used as a solvent for ethylenediamine. When the solvent for ethylenediamine was changed to water, the contact angle decreased noticeably. However, analysis of control films showed that the reduction in the contact angles was due to the solvent treatment. In the case of branched architectures, such reduction in contact angle due to the solvent treatment was not observed. Several control experiments were performed to ensure that the reduction in the contact angles was in fact due to the grafted species and not due to exposure to various solvents used in the reaction scheme.

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PubMed2004

PH effects in the complex formation and blending of poly(acrylic acid) with poly(ethylene oxide).

The effect of pH on the complex formation between poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) and poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) has been studied in aqueous solutions by turbidimetric and fluorescent methods. It was shown that the formation of insoluble interpolymer complexes is observed below a certain critical pH of complexation (pH(crit1)). The formation of hydrophilic interpolymer associates is possible above pH(crit1) and below a certain pH(crit2). The effects of polymer concentrations in solution and PEO molecular weight as well as inorganic salt addition on these critical pH values were studied. The polymeric films based on blends of PAA and PEO were prepared by casting from aqueous solutions with different pHs. These films were characterized by light transmittance measurements and differential scanning calorimetry. The existence of the pH value above which the polymers form an immiscible blend was demonstrated. The transitions between the interpolymer complex, miscible blend, and immiscible blend caused by pH changes are discussed. The recommendations for preparation of homogeneous miscible films based on compositions of poly(carboxylic acids) and various nonionic water-soluble polymers are presented.

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PubMed2004

Admicellar polymerization and characterization of thin poly(2,2,2-trifluoroethyl acrylate) film on aluminum alloys for in-crevice corrosion control.

Corrosion control of aluminum alloys in the aerospace industry has been of great interest in recent years, especially the aging of certain fleets in the United States Air Force. A thin film of poly(2,2,2-trifluoroethyl acrylate) (PTFEA) has been deposited on aluminum alloy coupons by admicellar polymerization for the purpose of in situ control of corrosion in narrow gaps. Polymerization conditions were chosen based on contact angle measurements, and the final product film was characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Surface characterization studies have shown that the polymeric film is approximately 10 nm thick with nonuniform deposition at this scale. The modified surface is highly hydrophobic and able to delay salt solution uptake (3.5 wt % NaCl) for a period of up to 6 h in crevice corrosion tests. PTFEA films reduced the corroded area to 20% compared to 65% for a bare aluminum control and to 33% for poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) film in a 24 h crevice test. PTFEA film exhibits better corrosion protection than PMMA film because it has higher hydrophobicity than a PMMA-modified surface and comparable properties as a corrosion barrier.

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PubMed2006

Self-assembly of mixtures of block copolymers of poly(styrene-b-acrylic acid) with random copolymers of poly(styrene-co-methacrylic acid).

The effects of the addition of random copolymers of poly(styrene-co-methacrylic acid) [P(S-co-MAA)] on the self-assembly of block copolymers of poly(styrene-b-acrylic acid) (PS-b-PAA) are described. The effects of variation of five factors, including the MAA content, the weight fraction and molar mass of the P(S-co-MAA), the initial concentration of the mixture, and the length of the PAA segment in the block copolymer, were investigated. With increasing MAA content, the localization of the random copolymer in the aggregate changed from the core to the interface, which led to a morphological transition from spheres to vesicles. Vesicles, mixtures of vesicles and large spheres, and large spheres alone were formed with increasing weight fraction of the random copolymer. When the molar mass of the random copolymer was high, both rods and vesicles were observed at low water contents; otherwise, only vesicles were observed. The vesicle size increased (from 100 to 140 nm) with increasing initial polymer concentration, whereas the vesicle membrane thickness remained constant. The size of the vesicles prepared from the mixtures increased with water content but decreased with the length of PAA in the diblock.

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PubMed2006

Ethoxylated nonionic surfactants in hydrophobic solvent: interaction with aqueous and membrane-immobilized poly(acrylic acid).

Interaction between ethoxylated nonionic surfactants and poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) in aqueous solutions is well-documented in the literature. In the present study, pure ethoxylated surfactant solution in a hydrophobic solvent was permeated through a partially cross-linked PAA composite membrane to quantify the surfactant-PAA interaction in the heterogeneous system. Partitioning of the mixture of the surfactants (15-S-5) between the hydrophobic solvent and aqueous solution of PAA was also studied. The role of ethylene oxide group variation in the surfactant-PAA interaction for the heterogeneous system was established by performing experiments with pure surfactants having the same alkyl chain length but varying ethoxylate chain lengths. It was observed that the surfactants with a higher number of ethylene oxide groups per molecule exhibit stronger interaction with PAA. The literature data for adsorption of pure ethoxylated surfactants (C12E(n)) on a hydrophobic solid-water interface was correlated and compared with the data obtained in our study. It was calculated that resistance in terms of transfer of surfactant molecules from a hydrophobic solvent domain to PAA domain lowers the extent of PAA-surfactant interaction by an order of magnitude. Only 40% of available carboxyl groups were accessible for interaction with the ethoxylated nonionic surfactants due to diffusion limitations. Finally the pH sensitivity of the PAA-surfactant complex was verified by successful regeneration of the membrane on permeation of slightly alkaline water. The regeneration and reuse of membrane is especially attractive in terms of process development for nonionic surfactant separation from hydrophobic solvents.

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PubMed2006

Octadecyl maleamic acid salt as a microreactor for its copolymerization reaction with butyl acrylate in aqueous medium.

The hydrogelator, octadecyl maleamic acid salt (ODMAS), has been shown to perform as a microreactor in copolymerization reaction with butyl acrylate in aqueous medium thereby providing functionalized latex. The evidence for occurrence of controlled polymerization reaction inside the microreactor is drawn from the composition and the polydispersity index of the copolymers. The copolymers generated under microreactor conditions or in other words, from emulsion phase provided by the hydrogelator exhibit significant incorporation of ODMAS with narrow polydispersity index. For example, a copolymer with ODMAS as high as 0.62 m and polydispersity index at 1.39 could be achieved. On the contrary, the solution copolymerization reactions in THF resulted in low yield of polymers with molecular weight at 10(3) order and polydispersity index in range of 2.53-2.91. The particle size distribution of the latexes remains almost invariant at 74 +/- 4 nm, over the concentration range of 0.12-0.62m with standard deviation (sigma) of 0.12-0.22. The surface area/molecule of ODMAS on the latex particle has been estimated to be 0.21 nm(2)/molecule. The polymerized latexes exhibit zeta potential at 64 +/- 3 mV and surface tension in range of 42.8-47.9 mN m(-)(1) respectively. This is indicative of coverage of latex with ODMAS.

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PubMed2006

Controllable self-assembly of CdTe/poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-acrylic acid) microgels in response to pH stimuli.

The self-assembly of hybrid CdTe/poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-acrylic acid) [poly(NIPAM-AAc)] microgels was tunable in response to pH stimuli. The pH-dependent swelling behavior of the polymer microgels played an important role in the self-assembly processes. At pH 3.73, the fractal and dendritic patterns of CdTe/poly(NIPAM-AAc) were fabricated on a large scale, in which the dipole moment of CdTe provided a significant driving force. At pH 11.28, the microgels aggregated and amalgamated to form a porous film and phase separation occurred between the CdTe nanocrystals and poly(NIPAM-AAc). The combination of the physical and chemical properties of inorganic CdTe nanocrystals with those of organic smart polymers provides a new opportunity for controllable self-assembly.

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PubMed2006

Synthesis and characterization of charged polystyrene-acrylic acid latex particles.

Novel, monodisperse charged colloidal particles of polystyrene cross linked with divinylbenzene and surface-grafted with acrylic acid were synthesized by emulsion polymerization and were characterized by estimating the dissociable surface charge by conductivity titration, the particle effective charge by conductivity verses particle concentration, and the particle size by dynamic light scattering and atomic force microscopy. The structural ordering and dynamics were investigated as a function of the volume fraction of the particles using static and dynamic light scattering, respectively. Furthermore, from the electrophoresis measurements, these particles are found to have a high salt tolerance due to increases in charge as a function of salt concentration.

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PubMed2006

Surface grafting polyethylene glycol (PEG) onto poly(ethylene-co-acrylic acid) films.

Two reaction schemes were developed to covalently graft poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) chains on poly(ethylene-co-acrylic acid) (EAA) surfaces. The schemes involved surface grafting of linker molecules L-lysine or polypropyleneamine dendrimer (AM64), with subsequent covalent bonding of PEG chains to the linker molecules. NHS and EDC were used to activate the carboxylic acid groups of the EAA in the outermost region of the film, estimated to be 20 nm by ATR-FTIR spectroscopy. XPS demonstrated that the conversion of this activation step was almost 100% in the detected region. After activation, L-lysine or dendrimer was grafted onto the EAA surface, followed by PEG grafting. Combining the data from ATR-FTIR, XPS, and contact angle goniometry, it was found that the PEG chains were grafted on the surface of the EAA film and larger surface coverage was achieved when the dendrimer was used as the intermediate layer. This surface also had the lowest water contact angle.

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PubMed2006

Effects of SDS on the thermo- and pH-sensitive structural changes of the poly(acrylic acid)-based copolymer containing both poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) and monomethoxy poly(ethylene glycol) grafts in water.

The effects of SDS on the structural changes of the thermally induced polymeric micelles from a graft copolymer comprising poly(acrylic acid) (PAAc) as the backbone and poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm) and monomethoxy poly(ethylene glycol) (mPEG) as the grafts in aqueous solution are studied. At low temperature, SDS micelles form via the hydrophobic association of SDS molecules with the PNIPAAm grafts at a critical aggregation concentration of SDS (cac(SDS)) much lower than its critical micelle concentration. Consequently, the critical aggregation temperature of the graft copolymer is elevated. The corresponding structure of the thermally induced polymeric micelles is characterized by an abrupt reduction in the particle size and an increased tendency toward formation of the monocore structure with a more compact and hydrophobic PNIPAAm microdomain being developed. On the other hand, upon the polymeric micelle formation at high temperature, the copolymer-bound SDS micelle structure is disrupted and the dissociated SDS molecules migrate to the core-shell interface with their alkyl chains residing in the liquidlike region of the hydrophobic PNIPAAm microdomain. The correlation between the polymeric particles and copolymer-bound micelles is further substantiated by showing the change of the colloidal particle size in response to changes in cac(SDS) via adjusting the pH of the aqueous copolymer/SDS solutions.

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PubMed2006

Water-soluble hydrogen-bonding interpolymer complex formation between poly(ethylene glycol) and poly(acrylic acid) grafted with poly(2-acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonic acid).

Comb-type copolymers of poly(acrylic acid) grafted with poly(2-acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonic acid) (PAMPSA) side chains form with poly(ethylene glycol), at low pH, water-soluble hydrogen-bonding interpolymer complexes. Turbidimetry, viscometry, and dynamic light scattering measurements suggest that compact, negatively charged, colloidal nanoparticles are formed at pH<3.75. The influence of the structure of the graft copolymers and of the ionic strength of the solution on the size of these nanoparticles was investigated. It was found that their hydrodynamic radius decreases by increasing the molecular mass of the PAMPSA side chains of the graft copolymer and increases with increasing the ionic strength of the solution.

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PubMed2007

Light-responsive hydrophobic association of azobenzene-modified poly(acrylic acid) with neutral surfactants.

Photoresponsive association between azobenzene-modified poly(acrylic acid)s (AMPs) and the nonionic surfactants tetraethylene glycol monododecyl ether and octadecyl ether (C12E4 and C18E4) has been achieved in dilute aqueous solution. The binding was investigated by (i) spectrophotometry that probes the polarity close to the azobenzene chromophore, (ii) capillary electrophoresis to obtain the amount of C12E4 bound per polymer chain, and (iii) pressure-area curves of Langmuir films to obtain information on the adsorption of AMP at the water-C18E4 interface. Increasing hydrophobicity of AMP (with increasing degree of modification with azobenzene side-groups) tightened the association with C12E4 in the dark. Exposure to UV light rapidly converted the azobenzene to their more polar cis isomer, which in turn weakened the association with surfactant. Almost complete photorelease of bound C12E4 was obtained with the optimal structure of AMP. Adsorption on large interfaces is much less sensitive to light. The possible origin of the photoresponse is analyzed in terms of AMP affinity for surfactant assemblies and azobenzene penetration in the hydrophobic core of micelles. We propose that the photoswing of polarity is amplified by the binding to small micelles because of the small number of anchors involved. A few azobenzene anchors afford tight binding in the dark, but also detach more easily than the whole AMP chain upon photoisomerization.

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PubMed2006

Initiated chemical vapor deposition of poly(1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorodecyl acrylate) thin films.

A solvent-free initiated chemical vapor deposition (iCVD) process was used to create low surface energy poly(1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorodecyl acrylate) (PPFDA) thin films at deposition rates as high as 375 nm/min. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy showed full retention of the fluorine moieties, and no measurable cross-linking was detected. Additionally, the FTIR studies support the hypothesis that film deposition results from vinyl polymerization. For all iCVD PPFDA films, the static contact angle was found to be 120.8 +/- 1.2 degrees. The roughness of the films was found to be between 14.9 and 19.8 nm RMS, and the refractive index of the films was found to be between 1.36 and 1.37. The deposition rate was studied as a function of the substrate temperature and the partial pressure of the monomer. It was found that the deposition rate increases with decreasing substrate temperature and increasing monomer partial pressure. It was also found that the molecular weight increases with decreasing substrate temperature and increases with increasing monomer partial pressure. The highest molecular weight measured was 177 300 with a polydispersity of 2.27. Quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) measurements showed that these effects correlated with an increased monomer concentration at the surface. The deposition rate data and the QCM data were quantitatively analyzed to find the rate constants of the process using a previously published model for the iCVD process involving nonfluorinated monomers. The determined values of the rate constants of the surface polymerization were found to be similar to the rate constants measured in liquid-phase free radical polymerization. The kinetic data found in this paper can now be used to study iCVD deposition onto substrates with more complex geometries.

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