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PubMed2005

Newton's constant and the twenty-first century laboratory.

The main aim of this paper is to describe the problems that confront experimentalists who attempt to determine Newton's constant of gravitation, G. I will motivate this work by discussing the role of Newton's constant of gravitation in classical physics and recent ideas as to its role in quantum physics. I will then discuss some key aspects of a precision determination of G. This will include criteria for the selection of the detector of the gravitational torque from the point of view of random uncertainties due to read-out noise, thermal and vibrational noise. Another important factor in precise determinations of G is the control of systematic effects (type B uncertainties) such as those due to uncertainties in absolute calibration of the gravitational torque, density homogeneity of source masses and length metrology. I will illustrate the discussion using the determination of G currently underway at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in France, and describe other experimental configurations that have been used in the past or are being currently developed.

Gravitation↗
PubMed2006

Effects of inertia and gravity on liquid plug splitting at a bifurcation.

Liquid plugs may form in pulmonary airways during the process of liquid instillation or removal in many clinical treatments. During inspiration the plug may split at airway bifurcations and lead to a nonuniform final liquid distribution, which can adversely affect treatment outcomes. In this paper, a combination of bench top experimental and theoretical studies is presented to study the effects of inertia and gravity on plug splitting in an airway bifurcation model to simulate the liquid distributions in large airways. The splitting ratio, Rs, is defined as the ratio of the plug volume entering the upper (gravitationally opposed) daughter tube to the lower (gravitationally favored) one. Rs is measured as a function of parent tube Reynolds number, Rep; gravitational orientations for roll angle, phi, and pitch angle, gamma; parent plug length LP; and the presence of pre-existing plug blockages in downstream daughter tubes. Results show that increasing Rep causes more homogeneous splitting. A critical Reynolds number Rec is found to exist so that when Rep < or = Rec, Rs = 0, i.e., no liquid enters the upper daughter tube. Rec increases while Rs decreases with increasing the gravitational effect, i.e., increasing phi and gamma. When a blockage exists in the lower daughter, Rec is only found at phi = 60 deg in the range of Rep studied, and the resulting total mass ratio can be as high as 6, which also asymptotes to a finite value for different phi as Rep increases. Inertia is further demonstrated to cause more homogeneous plug splitting from a comparison study of Rs versus Cap (another characteristic speed) for three liquids: water, glycerin, and LB-400X. A theoretical model based on entrance flow for the plug in the daughters is developed and predicts Rs versus Rep. The frictional pressure drop, as a part of the total pressure drop, is estimated by two fitting parameters and shows a linear relationship with Rep. The theory provides a good prediction on liquid plug splitting and well simulates the liquid distributions in the large airways of human lungs.

Acceleration↗
PubMed1996

Cutaneous microvascular flow in the foot during simulated variable gravities.

Our objective was to understand how weight bearing with varying gravitational fields affects blood perfusion in the sole of the foot. Human subjects underwent whole body tilting at four angles: upright [1 gravitational vector from head to foot (Gz)], 22 degrees (0.38 Gz), 10 degrees (0.17 Gz), and supine (0 Gz), simulating the gravitational fields of Earth, Mars, Moon, and microgravity, respectively. Cutaneous capillary blood flow was monitored on the plantar surface of the heel by laser Doppler flowmetry while weight-bearing load was measured. At each tilt angle, subjects increased weight bearing on one foot in graded load increments of 1 kg beginning with zero. The weight bearing at which null flow first occurred was determined as the closing load. Subsequently, the weight bearing was reduced in reverse steps until blood flow returned (opening load). Mean closing loads for simulated Earth gravity, Mars gravity, Moon gravity, and microgravity were 9.1, 4.6, 4.4, and 3.6 kg, respectively. Mean opening loads were 7.9, 4.1, 3.5, and 3.1 kg, respectively. Mean arterial pressures in the foot (MAP(foot)) calculated for each simulated gravitational field were 192, 127, 106, and 87 mmHg, respectively. Closing load and opening load were significantly correlated with MAP(foot) (r =0.70, 0.72, respectively) and were significantly different (P < 0.001) from each other. The data suggest that decreased local arterial pressure in the foot lowers tolerance to external compression. Consequently, the human foot sole may be more prone to cutaneous ischemia during load bearing in microgravity than on Earth.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

Fractal properties of pulmonary blood flow: characterization of spatial heterogeneity.

The heterogeneity of pulmonary blood flow was examined using a fractal analytic procedure, and the results were compared with the traditional gravitational model of flow distribution. 99mTc-labeled macroaggregate was injected intravenously at functional residual capacity in six supine anesthetized dogs. The lungs were fixed in situ and sliced in transverse sections. The slices were imaged on a planar gamma camera, and a three-dimensional array of blood flow measurements was reconstructed for each lung. Fractal analysis was used to examine the spatial heterogeneity or RDs (relative dispersion = SD/mean) as a function of the number of pieces into which the flow array was subdivided. RDs was fractal and could be characterized by a fractal dimension (Ds) of 1.09 +/- 0.02, where a Ds of 1.0 reflects homogeneous flow and 1.5 indicates a random flow distribution. The data fit the fractal model exceptionally well with an average r = 0.98. RDs was examined in gravitational and isogravitational planes and as expected was greatest in the gravitational direction. However, the difference was small, suggesting that gravitation plays a secondary role to an underlying process producing heterogeneity. Within the limits of resolution attained by this study (piece volumes greater than 0.25 cm3), the heterogeneity of pulmonary blood flow is well characterized by a fractal model.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Role of memorization conditions in the haptic processing of orientations and the 'oblique effect'.

The haptic processing of vertical, horizontal, 45 degrees and 135 degrees oblique orientations was studied in blindfolded sighted adults in an exploration-reproduction task. The purpose was to determine whether the variations of the memorization conditions between the exploration and reproduction phases would influence the global performance and the oblique effect (lower performance in oblique orientations than in vertical-horizontal orientations). If orientation coding depended on attentional resources, the increase in memory constraints would affect the haptic processing of orientations and the oblique effect. Memory constraints were therefore varied by changing the length and the nature of the delay in two tasks in which previous research has shown that the availability of gravitational cues affected orientation coding. Blindfolded adults were asked to explore haptically a rod with minimal (Expt 1) or natural (Expt 2) gravitational cues and then to reproduce the orientation of this rod ipsilaterally after one of four memorization conditions: with 5 s or 30 s unfilled delays, and 30 s delays filled with verbal or haptic interpolated tasks. When the delay was unfilled, whatever its length (5 s or 30 s), the performance depended on the conditions of manual exploration: the oblique effect was absent when the gravitational cues were minimal (Expt 1) and was present when these cues were natural (Expt 2). By contrast, when the delay was filled with interpolated tasks, the haptic oblique effect was present whatever the conditions of manual exploration. Taken together, these results showed that memorization conditions played a role in the haptic processing of orientations and in the oblique effect when the gravitational cues were minimal during manual exploration.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Effect of hyper- and microgravity on collagen post-translational controls of MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts.

UNLABELLED: We attempted to study the effects of microgravity (by clinostat) and hypergravity (using centrifugation) on collagen metabolism using murine MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts, especially focusing on collagen cross-link formation. We found that altered gravitational load affected the post-translational modification of collagen, particularly the collagen maturation pathway, through altered expression of enzymes involved in cross-link formation. INTRODUCTION: Gravitational loading plays important roles in the stimulation of differentiated osteoblast function and in the maintenance of skeletal tissues, whereas microgravity seems to result in osteopenia caused by impaired osteoblast differentiation. The aim of our study was to clarify the effects of altered gravitational environments on collagen metabolism, particularly the relationship between post-translational collagen quality and enzymes involved in cross-link formation, using murine osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Cells were cultured under vector-averaged microgravity (1 x 10(-3) g) using a clinostat or under conventional centrifugation techniques to generate hypergravity (20 g and 40 g) for 72 h. We then examined the expression patterns of lysyl oxidase and the two lysyl hydroxylase isoforms telopeptidyl lysyl hydroxylase (TLH; procollagen-lysine, 2-oxyglutarate, 5-dioxigenase 2 [PLOD2]) and helical lysyl hydroxylase (HLH; [PLOD1]) by quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis. Quantitative analysis of reducible immature (dihydroxylysinonorleucine, hydroxylysinonorleucine, and lysinonorleucine) and nonreducible mature (pyridinoline and deoxypyridinoline) cross-links, and maturation rate analysis of immature to mature cross-links by conventional metabolic labeling using tritium lysine were also performed. RESULTS: Hypergravity upregulated both TLH mRNA expression and enzyme activity compared with stationary cultures, whereas microgravity stimulated both HLH mRNA expression and enzyme activity. These results were consistent with increased relative occupancy rates of telopeptidyl hydroxylysine-derived cross-links and helical hydroxylysine-derived forms observed under hypergravity and microgravity, respectively. Hypergravity stimulated not only lysyl oxidase mRNA expression but also increased enzyme activity and the sum of immature and mature cross-links. Furthermore, the conversion rate of immature cross-links to mature compounds was markedly increased under hypergravity but decreased under microgravity. CONCLUSION: Altered gravitational loading may affect the post-translational modification of collagen through altered expression of enzymes involved in cross-link formation. These observations may be important in elucidating the mechanisms of osteopenia during space flight.

3T3 Cells↗
PubMed2004

[Biology of size and gravity].

Gravity is a force that acts on mass. Biological effects of gravity and their magnitude depend on scale of mass and difference in density. One significant contribution of space biology is confirmation of direct action of gravity even at the cellular level. Since cell is the elementary unit of life, existence of primary effects of gravity on cells leads to establish the firm basis of gravitational biology. However, gravity is not limited to produce its biological effects on molecules and their reaction networks that compose living cells. Biological system has hierarchical structure with layers of organism, group, and ecological system, which emerge from the system one layer down. Influence of gravity is higher at larger mass. In addition to this, actions of gravity in each layer are caused by process and mechanism that is subjected and different in each layer of the hierarchy. Because of this feature, summing up gravitational action on cells does not explain gravity for biological system at upper layers. Gravity at ecological system or organismal level can not reduced to cellular mechanism. Size of cells and organisms is one of fundamental characters of them and a determinant in their design of form and function. Size closely relates to other physical quantities, such as mass, volume, and surface area. Gravity produces weight of mass. Organisms are required to equip components to support weight and to resist against force that arise at movement of body or a part of it. Volume and surface area associate with mass and heat transport process at body. Gravity dominates those processes by inducing natural convection around organisms. This review covers various elements and process, with which gravity make influence on living systems, chosen on the basis of biology of size. Cells and biochemical networks are under the control of organism to integrate a consolidated form. How cells adjust metabolic rate to meet to the size of the composed organism, whether is gravity responsible for this feature, are subject we discuss in this article. Three major topics in gravitational and space biology are; how living systems have been adapted to terrestrial gravity and evolved, how living systems respond to exotic gravitational environment, and whether living systems could respond and adapt to microgravity. Biology of size can contribute to find a way to answer these question, and answer why gravity is important in biology, at explaining why gravity has been a dominant factor through the evolutional history on the earth.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1998

The haptic oblique effect in the perception of rod orientation by blind adults.

The haptic perception of vertical, horizontal, +45 degrees oblique, and +135 degrees oblique orientations was studied in completely blind adults. The purpose was to determine whether the variations of the gravitational cues provided by the arm-hand system during scanning would affect the manifestation of the oblique effect (lower performance in oblique orientations than in vertical-horizontal ones) as they did in blindfolded sighted people (Gentaz & Hatwell, 1996). In blindfolded sighted adults, the oblique effect was reduced or absent when the magnitude of gravitational cues was decreased. If visual experience participated in the haptic oblique effect, we should observe no oblique effect in early blind subjects in the conditions of manual exploration where late blind and blindfolded sighted manifest this effect. The magnitude of gravitational cues was therefore varied by changing gravity constraints, whereas the variability of these cues was varied by changing the plane in which the task was performed: horizontal (low variability) and frontal (high variability). Early and late blind adults were asked to explore haptically a rod and then to reproduce its orientation ipsilaterally in one of two exploratory conditions in each plane. In the horizontal plane, the oblique effect was absent, whatever the gravity constraints, in both groups (early and late blind subjects). In the frontal plane, the oblique effect was present, whatever the gravity constraints, in both groups. Taken together, these results showed that, in blind people, the variability of gravitational cues played a role in the haptic oblique effect; no effect of previous visual experience was observed.

Adult↗
PubMed1967

The influence of simulated low-gravity environments on growth, development and metabolism of plants.

Low-gravity environments may be simulated through appropriate horizontal clinostat rotation. This simulation is accomplished through a biological nullification of the directional component of gravitational force. Measuring biologically effective gravity force by organ response, it is readily demonstrated that biologically active gravitational force may be treated as a two-dimensional vector. Though the magnitude dimension of this vector remains virtually constant anywhere on earth, the biologically effective direction dimension may be quantitatively altered by clinostat rotation, provided appropriate angular velocities and angles of inclination of clinostat axes are employed. Using oat seedlings, a rotation rate of 2 rpm, and a horizontal axis clinostat, a 'zero g' environment may be simulated. This simulated 'zero g' condition is attested by the inability of plants to perceive unidirectional gravitational force of sufficient magnitude to elicit directional growth. Under such conditions, plants will grow in the direction imparted by the initial orientation of the plants in the system. Geotropic curvature responses to subsequent geostimulation are, however, greater in seedlings grown under these conditions, nullifying the direction dimension of gravitational force, than in seedlings grown with rotation but with normal unidirectional gravity loads. Root growth under simulated 'zero' gravity conditions is likewise enhanced as compared to plants grown with rotation but normal unidirectional gravity. These differences in magnitude of growth and response to subsequent geostimulation are inexplicable on bases of modified auxin economy or production. Respiration rates are, however, materially enhanced by the simulated 'zero g' environments. This enhancement of respiration, as well as growth, quantitatively diminishes as the unidirectional gravity load is increased. These results imply that the primary effect of low-gravity environments is likely that of modifying the magnitude of respiratory metabolism. Such a modification is partly or wholly explicable on a basis of a modified distribution pattern of metabolically active particulate cell inclusions.

Avena↗
PubMed1991

Animal motility and gravity.

1. Specific resistance to locomotion will remain constant if changes in the amount of force produced or in the cost of force production are directly proportional to changes in gravitational acceleration. 2. If changes in gravitational acceleration result in a disproportionate decrease of the effective mechanical advantage of limbs or reduction in contact time for developing force, then specific resistance may increase. 3. If changes in gravitational acceleration disproportionately increase effective mechanical advantage or the contact time for developing force, then specific resistance may decrease. 4. Finally, changes in the direction and magnitude of gravitational acceleration will affect the energetics and mechanics of animal motility even for small runners that appear to defy gravity.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

[Biophysical aspects on the result of the Spacelab experiment and consequences for Bárány's theory].

On testing the peripheral vestibular apparatus of astronauts with healthy labyrinths, nystagmus was observed when flushing the ears with hot or cold water even in the absence of gravitation. In the opinion of some scientists, this seems to refute Bárány's theory. They attempt to explain nystagmus as a result of compression. The hypothesis of Bárány, basing on terrestrial conditions, explains the peripheral impulse as the result of a convective flow caused by heating or cooling within the horizontal semicircular canal. However, if gravitation is absent any such circulation is excluded, because buoyancy is impossible without gravitation. The article shows, on the one hand, that the compression hypothesis cannot be correct, where as on the other Bárány's theory needs completion. For, in addition to the convective flow, the expansion of the endolymph resulting from heat must be considered. This effect occurs even in the absence of gravitation.

Aerospace Medicine↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Gravity, blood circulation, and the adaptation of form and function in lower vertebrates.

Gravitational force influences musculoskeletal systems, fluid distribution, and hydrodynamics of the circulation, especially in larger terrestrial vertebrates. The disturbance to hydrodynamics and distribution of body fluids relates largely to the effects of hydrostatic pressure gradients acting in vertical blood columns. These, in turn, are linked to the evolution of adaptive countermeasures involving modifications of structure and function. Comparative studies of snakes suggest there are four generalizations concerning adaptive countermeasures to gravity stress that seem relevant to lower vertebrates generally. First, increasing levels of regulated arterial blood pressure are expected to evolve with some relation to gravitational stresses incurred by the effects of height and posture on vertical blood columns above the heart. Second, aspects of gross anatomical organization are expected to evolve in relation to gravitational influence incurred by habitat and behavior. Third, natural selection coupled to gravitational stresses has favored morphological features that reduce the compliance of perivascular tissues and provide an anatomical "antigravity suit." Fourth, natural selection has produced gradients or regional differences of vascular characteristics in tall or elongated vertebrates that are active in high gravity stress environments. Consideration or awareness of these principles should be incorporated into interpretations of structure and function in lower vertebrates.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1995

Magnetophoresis: II. Quantification of iron and hemoglobin content at the single erythrocyte level.

The iron and hemoglobin content of individual erythrocytes was determined using a method based on parallel velocity measurements during magnetophoresis and gravitational sedimentation of individual erythrocytes in suspension. In previous publications we have suggested employing cell magnetophoresis, a biophysical phenomenon characterized by cell movement in a fluid under magnetic field influence, for cytometry. The paramagnetic ferric iron in methemoglobin is used as a magnetic label. The iron content is estimated from the magnetophoresis velocity, and hemoglobin content from the gravitational sedimentation velocity of erythrocytes. Blood samples are also analyzed in a Coulter counter to determine their mean corpuscular hemoglobin. The time course of the reaction of methemoglobin reduction is quantified at the single erythrocyte level. The methemoglobin content in individual erythrocytes is determined following the oxidation reaction. Erythrocytes from patients with normo-, hypo-, or hyperchromic anemia exhibit magnetophoresis and gravitational sedimentation velocities that correlate closely with mean corpuscular hemoglobin. We propose the utilization of magnetophoretic cytometry for detailed diagnostic studies at the single erythrocyte level. Furthermore, the magnetophoresis velocity to gravitational sedimentation velocity ratio is proposed as a standard value for comparative study of magnetically labeled cells in future investigations, as it was found to be constant and independent of hemoglobin content.

Anemia↗
PubMed1994

Synchrony detection in neural assemblies.

The identification of synchronously active neural assemblies in simultaneous recordings of neuron activities is an important research issue and a difficult algorithmic problem. A gravitational analysis method has been developed to detect and identify groups of neurons that tend to generate action potentials in near-synchrony from among a larger population of simultaneously recorded units. In this paper, an improved algorithm is used for the gravitational clustering method and its performance is characterized. Whereas the original algorithm ran in n3 time (n = the number of neurons), the new algorithm runs in n2 time. Neurons are represented as particles in n-space that 'gravitate' towards one another whenever near-synchronous electrical activity occurs. Ensembles of neurons that tend to fire together then become clustered together. The gravitational technique not only identifies the synchronous groups present but also shows graphically the changing activity patterns and changing synchronies.

Action Potentials↗
PubMed2000

Analysis and decomposition of signals obtained by thigh-fixed uni-axial accelerometry during normal walking.

The use of piezo-resistive uni-axial accelerometer signals in gait analysis is complicated by the fact that the measured signal is composed of different types of acceleration. The aim of the study is to obtain insight into the signal from a tangential accelerometer attached to the thigh during walking. Six subjects walk with three different speeds. Simultaneous measurements are performed with accelerometers, footswitches and an opto-electronic system. The components of the accelerometer signal are calculated from the opto-electronic system. A clear relationship is found between the measured and calculated accelerometer signals (range RMS: 0.76-3.69 m x s(-2), range rms: 0.22-0.61). The most pronounced feature is a high positive acceleration peak (> 10 m x s(-2)) at the end of the cycle. The gravitational acceleration during one cycle is characterised by a sinusoidal shape, whereas the inertial acceleration contains higher-frequency components (up to 20 Hz). During the major part of the gait cycle, the gravitational and inertial acceleration make opposing contributions to the signal As a result, the gravitational acceleration influences the amplitudes of the measured acceleration signal, the shape and peaks of which are mainly determined by the inertial acceleration. Because the gravitational and inertial accelerations differ in frequency components, the application for gait analysis remains feasible.

Acceleration↗
PubMed1974

The role of gravity in the phylogeny of structure and function in animal sensors of spatial orientation, and their predicted action in weightlessness.

The evolution of the structural, functional and cytochemical organization of the gravity receptor which determines a body position in the gravitational field of the earth by means of muscular regulation was traced both invertebrates and vertebrates, using electron microscopic and histochemical methods. In the course of evolution of vertebrates, the specialized gravity receptor-statocyst which, as a rule, consists of primary sensory cells and supplies otoliths, is formed. In vertebrates, there exists a vestibular apparatus made up of secondary sensory cells and also having otoliths. The receptor cells, both of statocysts and the vestibular apparatus, are supplied with special antennas (kinocilia and stereocilia). Deviation of the antennas stimulated by displacement of the otoliths resulting from locomotor activity of animals leads to excitation of the receptor cells. When exposed to a modified gravitational field (linear accelerations of 10 g, for 3 min), the receptor cells of the vestibular apparatus, in all classes of vertebrates, show progressive changes in RNA content and protein synthesis (increase followed by decrease) which return to normal only after 12 days. Thus, immediate transfer of animals and man from acceleration to weightlessness appears to be a reason for movement disease. The above consideration showed the need for an experiment in which an animal (with its vestibular apparatus) which had not undergone previous accelerations, would be exposed to weightlessness. Frog embryos, Rana temporaria, at the stage preceding the organogenesis, when the vestibular apparatus and other organs were lacking, were chosen as a suitable subject. Frog embryos at the stage of an early gastrula were placed in a special container Emkon aboard the Soyuz 10 spacecraft. After short accelerations, they were exposed to weightlessness for 44 hours. The embryos were allowed to continue to develop to the stage of early tail bud. The experimental embryos showed normally developed acoustic vesicles and vestibular ganglia. Clear differentiation of the receptor cells with antennas (kinocilia and stereocilia) was found in the acoustic vesicles. Thus, in weightlessness, vestibular apparatus develops just as well as in the gravitational field of the earth. However, only a much longer stay in weightlessness conditions will indicate whether there are any changes in the structural, cytochemical and functional organization of vestibular apparatus. The similarity in the structural, functional and cytochemical organization of the gravity receptor in vertebrates and invertebrates appears to allow the prediction of the behaviour of the gravity receptor as a whole, and of its receptor elements, both in normal and changed gravitational fields. The first attempts were carried out only on the vestibular apparatus of vertebrates.

Acetylcholinesterase↗
PubMed2004

Buoyancy-driven coalescence of spherical drops covered with incompressible surfactant at arbitrary Péclet number.

Collision efficiencies are determined for two surfactant-covered spherical drops in the limits of nearly uniform surface coverage and bulk insolubility for Brownian and/or gravitational motion as a function of drop-size ratio, drop-to-medium viscosity ratio, and retardation parameter. For two equal-sized drops in Brownian motion in the limit of small viscosity ratio, the calculated collision efficiencies agree well with earlier results for bubbles. While the two-sphere relative mobility functions for motion parallel to the drops' line of centers tend to the same values in the limits of infinite viscosity ratio and infinite retardation parameter, the asymmetric mobility functions do not, because the coefficients for the rotational term in Lamb's singular solution are independent of the presence of surfactant. The complex dependence of the transverse mobility functions on the viscosity ratio and retardation parameter makes it possible for the gravitational collision efficiency to increase slightly with viscosity ratio at fixed size ratio and retardation parameter of O(10(3)) or larger. Typical hydrosols are also studied in gravitational motion at arbitrary Péclet number, showing the combined influence of Brownian and gravitational motion.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1997

Intersegmental dynamics of standing from sitting.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the magnitude of muscle moments acting on either end of body segments with other motion-dependent and gravitational moments during the task of standing up. DESIGN: A mathematical model which partitions moment components was developed and applied and descriptive analysis of the resultant data conducted. BACKGROUND: It has been hypothesized that segmental interactions may be exploited during the task of standing up from sitting to lessen demands for the production of large muscle forces. There has been no investigation of the relative sizes of these interactions nor of their impact on the task. METHOD: Kinematic data obtained from six healthy male subjects were used as inputs to a 'top-down' dynamic model. Each total segmental moment was partitioned into a net muscle component as well as gravitational and motion-dependent components. RESULTS: The model successfully predicted both muscle moments determined by the 'ground-up' inverse dynamics approach and also ground reaction forces measured with a force platform. Motion-dependent moments were consistently small compared with muscle and gravitational moments. CONCLUSION: Segmental motion during standing up is controlled almost entirely by gravitational moments and the direct action of muscles which span either end of the segment. Motion-dependent moments do not significantly reduce the muscle moments required to stand up. RELEVANCE: Knowledge and understanding of the mechanical demands on the body during rising from sitting to standing are important in identifying critical elements for successful performance. Such information may also provide a basis for the development or refinement of strategies to retrain the movement following injury or disease.

Journal Article↗