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PubMed1996

[Effects of fluorescein and indocyanine green angiography on subsequent dark adaptation and the electroretinogram].

BACKGROUND: In clinical practice the electroretinogram (ERG) usually should not be recorded immediately after conventional fluorescein angiography (FLA), because of the bleaching effects of strong light exposure on the course of dark adaptation and on the ERG. Currently it is not known, if indocyaningreen (ICG) angiography using the Heidelberg Retina Angiograph (HRA) has similar effects on the outer retina and if therefore the ERG should also not be recorded after ICG angiography. METHODS: Eight patients with different retinal diseases were examined. After 5 minutes of light adaptation to 160 cd/m2, Ganzfeld ERGs were repeatedly recorded using DTL electrodes during a 30 minutes dark period with a flash luminance of 0.1 cds/.m2. After this dark adaptation period a standardized ERG was recorded according to the ISCEV recommendations. This procedure was followed either by ICG angiography using the HRA or by conventional fluorescein angiography using the Canon CF 60 fundus camera. Within an interval of 5 minutes the above mentioned ERG procedure was repeated. RESULTS: ICG angiography using the HRA did neither affect the course of dark adaptation as measured by increasing b-wave amplitudes during the 30 minutes dark adaptation period, nor the values for each response of the Ganzfeld standard ERG. FLA did neither affect b-wave responses to dim stimuli, nor to stronger stimuli in the scotopic range. However, the course of dark adaptation was significantly prolonged after FLA. The maximum b-wave was not affected. CONCLUSIONS: ICG angiography using the HRA could be performed prior to the recording of the ERG, without any effect on the ERG. In contrast conventional FLA must be performed after ERG recordings, in order not to alter the electrophysiological responses.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Overview of intestinal adaptation and its stimulation.

Total parenteral nutrition (TPN) can be life-saving for many patients with short-bowel syndrome (SBS). However, chronic TPN administration is associated with nutritional deficiencies, septic complications, high health care costs, and life-threatening organ failure. In an effort to rehabilitate SBS patients so they may achieve enteral autonomy, investigators have attempted to stimulate the adaptive response following extensive small-bowel resection. Intestinal adaptation may include: 1) morphological changes of the residual bowel which increase the absorptive surface area; 2) functional changes that increase the absorptive capacity of individual enterocytes and colonocytes; and 3) changes in colonic production and absorption of short-chain fatty acids which improve intestinal vitality and maximize efficiency of energy and fluid absorption. Several peptides, nutrients, cytokines, and other factors promote intestinal adaptation in animals. These "growth" factors may predominantly affect one aspect of the adaptive response while having little or no effect on other physiologic or morphologic parameters. In addition, combined administration of stimulatory agents may be necessary to enhance adaptation. Dietary constituents may have profound positive and negative effects on adaptation and must be considered in developing an overall plan for treatment of the SBS patients. Only a few clinical studies have been performed to evaluate therapeutic regimens for SBS beyond standard supportive care and TPN administration. The combined administration of growth hormone, glutamine and a modified diet to over 225 adults has been shown to eliminate or decrease TPN dependence in 80% of patients receiving this therapy. Further study is required to optimize the treatment of humans with intestinal failure and to determine which patients are most likely to benefit from medical therapy. The authors conclude that the intestinal length to body weight index may be one predictive factor useful for determining which SBS patients will benefit from a trial of pharmacologic manipulation before attempting alternative, potentially more invasive therapies.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2002

Preoperative prism adaptation for acquired esotropia: long-term results.

PURPOSE: The efficacy of preoperative prism adaptation in subjects with acquired esotropia has been established at 6 and 12 months postoperatively. We evaluated the outcomes of subjects with acquired esotropia who had preoperative prism adaptation and were followed longer than 12 months. METHODS: A retrospective analysis was undertaken of 2 groups of subjects with acquired esotropia who underwent bilateral medial rectus recessions based on the distance angle of deviation and were followed more than 12 months postoperatively. Group A subjects had preoperative prism adaptation to determine the target angle for corrective surgery. In Group B subjects, surgery was based on the maximum angle of strabismus at distance, determined by alternate prism cover test without preoperative prism adaptation. RESULTS: We compared 17 subjects in Group A and 19 subjects in Group B. The postoperative follow-up period was 3 +/- 1.7 years in Group A and 4.8 +/- 1.8 years in Group B. The age at the last visit was 9.1 +/- 2 years in Group A and 10 +/- 2 years in Group B. Postoperative residual esotropia was 2.6 +/- 2.5 PD at distance in Group A patients and 6.6 +/- 5.9 PD in group B patients (P =.002). Residual esotropia at near was 3 +/- 3.8 PD in Group A and 11.5 +/- 8.12 PD in Group B (P <.01). More Group B subjects required bifocal spectacles to achieve optimal alignment at near (P =.001). CONCLUSION: Acquired esotropia subjects operated on for their distance prism-adapted angle maintained better motor alignment over a long-term follow-up period when compared with nonprism-adapted subjects operated on for their distance angle.

Adaptation, Ocular↗
PubMed2002

The impact of dark adaptation on photoscreening.

PURPOSE: Some previous studies have used different dark adaptation periods to achieve adequate pupil dilation for photo refraction. Because efficient use of time is important in screening programs, we investigated how dark adaptation affects the quality of eye photographs. METHODS: This prospective study was done on 2 groups. In the first group (40 patients), 1 horizontal flash and 1 vertical flash photograph were taken as soon as the room lights were turned off, and a second set of photographs was taken after 10 minutes of dark adaptation. In the second group (37 patients), sets of photographs were taken after 1, 5, and 15 minutes of dark adaptation. Pupillary diameters were measured by an observer who was masked to the timing of the photographs. The findings were compared using the Wilcoxon signed rank test and the Student t test for paired data. RESULTS: Compared with the results at 1 minute, mean pupillary diameter was significantly decreased after 10 minutes of dark adaptation, both with the horizontal (Z = -4.723; P <.001) and the vertical flash (Z = -4.668; P <.001) in the first group. In the second group, the mean pupillary diameters at 1, 5, and 15 minutes in the horizontal flash photos were 5.78 +/- 1.03 mm, 5.35 +/- 1.10 mm, and 5.04 +/- 1.05 mm, respectively, and were 5.70 +/- 0.95 mm, 5.21 +/- 1.09 mm, and 4.86 +/- 0.95 mm, respectively, in the vertical flash photos at these stages. These diameters were all significantly different (P <.001). CONCLUSION: The results indicated that dark adaptation is not a prerequisite for photoscreening, and that, in fact, it might have an adverse effect on pupillary diameter.

Child↗
PubMed2006

Precise adaptation in bacterial chemotaxis through "assistance neighborhoods".

The chemotaxis network in Escherichia coli is remarkable for its sensitivity to small relative changes in the concentrations of multiple chemical signals over a broad range of ambient concentrations. Key to this sensitivity is an adaptation system that relies on methylation and demethylation (or deamidation) of specific modification sites of the chemoreceptors by the enzymes CheR and CheB, respectively. It was recently discovered that these enzymes can access five to seven receptors when tethered to a particular receptor. We show that these "assistance neighborhoods" are necessary for precise adaptation in a model for signaling by clusters of chemoreceptors. In agreement with experiment, model clusters composed of receptors of different types exhibit high sensitivity and precise adaptation over a wide range of chemical concentrations and the response of adapted clusters to addition/removal of attractant scales with free-energy change. We predict two limits of precise adaptation at large attractant concentrations: Either receptors reach full methylation and turn off, or receptors become saturated and cease to respond to attractant but retain their adapted activity.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2006

Fatness at birth predicts adult susceptibility to ovarian suppression: an empirical test of the Predictive Adaptive Response hypothesis.

Poor fetal environments are thought to produce adaptive changes in human developmental trajectories according to the Predictive Adaptive Response hypothesis. Although many studies have demonstrated correlations between indicators of fetal environment and negative adult health outcomes, the adaptive significance of these outcomes is unclear. Our study explicitly tests the adaptive nature of fetal programming in humans. We show that differences in nutritional status at birth are associated with adaptive differences in the sensitivity of adult ovarian function to energetic stress. Women who were born as relatively fat babies do not exhibit ovarian suppression in response to moderate levels of physical activity at adulthood, in contrast to women who were born as skinnier babies. The levels of estradiol in women born in the highest tertile of ponderal index (an indicator of neonatal nutritional status) were 37% and 46% higher, respectively, than levels of estradiol in women born in the low and middle ponderal index tertiles. These findings suggest that fetal programming of reproductive function results in developmentally plastic, but essentially adaptive, shifts in set points of ovarian response to energetic stress, such that women who were gestated under conditions of energetic constraint show greater sensitivity to energetic stress in adulthood. Our results have practical implications in terms of behavioral strategies for reducing the risk of breast cancer. We suggest that the amount of activity necessary to reduce levels of estrogen, which may in turn reduce cancer risk, can depend on a woman's nutritional status at birth.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2001

An analysis of neural receptive field plasticity by point process adaptive filtering.

Neural receptive fields are plastic: with experience, neurons in many brain regions change their spiking responses to relevant stimuli. Analysis of receptive field plasticity from experimental measurements is crucial for understanding how neural systems adapt their representations of relevant biological information. Current analysis methods using histogram estimates of spike rate functions in nonoverlapping temporal windows do not track the evolution of receptive field plasticity on a fine time scale. Adaptive signal processing is an established engineering paradigm for estimating time-varying system parameters from experimental measurements. We present an adaptive filter algorithm for tracking neural receptive field plasticity based on point process models of spike train activity. We derive an instantaneous steepest descent algorithm by using as the criterion function the instantaneous log likelihood of a point process spike train model. We apply the point process adaptive filter algorithm in a study of spatial (place) receptive field properties of simulated and actual spike train data from rat CA1 hippocampal neurons. A stability analysis of the algorithm is sketched in the. The adaptive algorithm can update the place field parameter estimates on a millisecond time scale. It reliably tracked the migration, changes in scale, and changes in maximum firing rate characteristic of hippocampal place fields in a rat running on a linear track. Point process adaptive filtering offers an analytic method for studying the dynamics of neural receptive fields.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1977

Sensory transduction in Escherichia coli: role of a protein methylation reaction in sensory adaptation.

The behavioral response of Escherichia coli to the addition of a stimulatory compound is transient; thus the organism undergoes sensory adaptation. When the compound is removed, E. coli undergoes the inverse process, called deadaptation, and very rapidly regains its sensitivity to the stimulus. In this communication we demonstrate that the previously reported methylation of several cytoplasmic membrane proteins is correlated with, and very likely controls, the state of adaptation of the cell. In the absence of an added stimulus these proteins are methylated to a basal level. When the bacteria are stimulated by the addition of an attractant, the extent of methylation increases over a period of several minutes to a new level, which is maintained as long as the attractant is present. The magnitude of the increase in methylation is a function of the size of the stimulus and is directly proportional to the duration of the behavioral response. Upon removal of the attractant the level of methylation very rapidly falls to the basal value. Previously we have shown that adaptation requires methionine, but maintenance of the adapted state and de-adaptation do not [Springer, M. S., Goy, M. F. & Adler, J. (1975) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 74, 183-187]; here we demonstrate that methylation requires methionine but maintenance of an attractant-induced level of methylation and the demethylation that occurs following removal of the attractant do not. These results strongly indicate a role for protein methylation in sensory adaptation.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1998

Retinoic acid has light-adaptive effects on horizontal cells in the retina.

Ambient light conditions affect the morphology of synaptic elements within the cone pedicle and modulate the spatial properties of the horizontal cell receptive field. We describe here that the effects of retinoic acid on these properties are similar to those of light adaptation. Intraorbital injection of retinoic acid into eyes of dark-adapted carp that subsequently were kept in complete darkness results in the formation of numerous spinules at the terminal dendrites of horizontal cells, a typical feature of light-adapted retinae. The formation of these spinules during light adaptation is impaired in the presence of citral, a competitive inhibitor of the dehydrogenase responsible for the generation of retinoic acid in vivo. Intracellularly recorded responses of horizontal cells from dark-adapted eyecup preparations superfused with retinoic acid reveal typical light-adapted spatial properties. Retinoic acid thus appears to act as a light-signaling modulator. Its activity appears not to be at the transcriptional level because its action was not blocked by actinomycin.

Adaptation, Ocular↗
PubMed1998

Hot spots in cold adaptation: localized increases in conformational flexibility in lactate dehydrogenase A4 orthologs of Antarctic notothenioid fishes.

To elucidate mechanisms of enzymatic adaptation to extreme cold, we determined kinetic properties, thermal stabilities, and deduced amino acid sequences of lactate dehydrogenase A4 (A4-LDH) from nine Antarctic (-1.86 to 1 degree C) and three South American (4 to 10 degree C) notothenioid teleosts. Higher Michaelis-Menten constants (Km) and catalytic rate constants (kcat) distinguish orthologs of Antarctic from those of South American species, but no relationship exists between adaptation temperature and the rate at which activity is lost because of heat denaturation. In all species, active site residues are conserved fully, and differences in kcat and Km are caused by substitutions elsewhere in the molecule. Within geographic groups, identical kinetic properties are generated by different substitutions. By combining our data with A4-LDH sequences for other vertebrates and information on roles played by localized conformational changes in setting kcat, we conclude that notothenioid A4-LDHs have adapted to cold temperatures by increases in flexibility in small areas of the molecule that affect the mobility of adjacent active-site structures. Using these findings, we propose a model that explains linked temperature-adaptive variation in Km and kcat. Changes in sequence that increase flexibility of regions of the enzyme involved in catalytic conformational changes may reduce energy (enthalpy) barriers to these rate-governing shifts in conformation and, thereby, increase kcat. However, at a common temperature of measurement, the higher configurational entropy of a cold-adapted enzyme may foster conformations that bind ligands poorly, leading to high Km values relative to warm-adapted orthologs.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1999

Horizontal cells reveal cone type-specific adaptation in primate retina.

The human cone visual system maintains contrast sensitivity over a wide range of ambient illumination, a property known as light adaptation. The first stage in light adaptation is believed to take place at the first neural step in vision, within the long, middle, and short wavelength sensitive cone photoreceptors. To determine the properties of adaptation in primate outer retina, we measured cone signals in second-order interneurons, the horizontal cells, of the macaque monkey. Horizontal cells provide a unique site for studying early adaptational mechanisms; they are but one synapse away from the photoreceptors, and each horizontal cell receives excitatory inputs from many cones. Light adaptation occurred over the entire range of light levels evaluated, a luminance range of 15-1,850 trolands. Adaptation was demonstrated to be independent in each cone type and to be spatially restricted. Thus, in primates, a major source of sensitivity regulation occurs before summation of cone signals in the horizontal cell.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2000

Two mechanisms for transducer adaptation in vertebrate hair cells.

Deflection of the hair bundle atop a sensory hair cell modulates the open probability of mechanosensitive ion channels. In response to sustained deflections, hair cells adapt. Two fundamentally distinct models have been proposed to explain transducer adaptation. Both models support the notion that channel open probability is modulated by calcium that enters via the transduction channels. Both also suggest that the primary effect of adaptation is to shift the deflection-response [I(X)] relationship in the direction of the applied stimulus, thus maintaining hair bundle sensitivity. The models differ in several respects. They operate on different time scales: the faster on the order of a few milliseconds or less and the slower on the order of 10 ms or more. The model proposed to explain fast adaptation suggests that calcium enters and binds at or near the transduction channels to stabilize a closed conformation. The model proposed to explain the slower adaptation suggests that adaptation is mediated by an active, force-generating process that regulates the effective stimulus applied to the transduction channels. Here we discuss the evidence in support of each model and consider the possibility that both may function to varying degrees in hair cells of different species and sensory organs.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2004

Proteome analysis associated with cadmium adaptation in U937 cells: identification of calbindin-D28k as a secondary cadmium-responsive protein that confers resistance to cadmium-induced apoptosis.

Cadmium is a well known environmental toxicant and carcinogen. To identify proteins involved in cellular adaptive responses to cadmium, we established cadmium-adapted U937 cells that exhibit resistance to cadmium-induced apoptosis, and we performed comparative proteome analysis of these cells with parental cells that were either untreated or treated with cadmium. Newly identified proteins that were changed in expression level in both adapted cells and cadmium-treated parental cells included proteins implicated in cell proliferation and malignant transformation. Most interesting, a calcium-binding protein calbindin-D(28k) was increased only in the adapted cells but not in cadmium-exposed parental cells. The level of calbindin-D(28k) increased by the degree of cadmium adaptation and was stably maintained without selective pressure of cadmium. Cadmium-adapted U937 cells were resistant to the toxic effects of cytosolic calcium rise by cadmium treatment and by depletion of intracellular calcium stores, suggesting that enhanced calcium buffering by up-regulated calbindin-D(28k) may be responsible for acquiring resistance to cadmium-induced apoptosis. We demonstrated that overexpression of calbindin-D(28k) in MN9D neuronal cells resulted in reduced cadmium-induced apoptosis. Our study documents for the first time that cells respond to long term cadmium exposure by increasing calbindin-D(28k) expression, thereby attenuating cadmium-induced apoptosis.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2004

Homologous adaptation to oxidative stress induced by the photosensitized Pd-bacteriochlorophyll derivative (WST11) in cultured endothelial cells.

Various forms of cellular stress induce adaptive responses through poorly understood mechanisms. In maintaining homeostasis, endothelial cells respond and adapt to changes in oxidative stress that prevail in the circulation. Endothelial cells are also the target of many oxidative stress-based vascular therapies. The objectives of this study were to determine whether endothelial cells adapt to oxidative stress induced upon the photosensitization of WST11 (a water-soluble Pd-bacteriochlorophyll derivative being developed as a photodynamic agent) and to study possible cellular mechanisms involved. The hallmark of WST11-based photodynamic therapy is the in situ generation of cytotoxic reactive oxygen species causing vascular shutdown, hypoxia, and tumor eradication. Here we demonstrated that photodynamic therapy also induces adaptive responses and tolerance following a sublethal preconditioning of endothelial cells with the same (homologous) or different (heterologous) stressor. A link among p38 MAPK activity, expression of hsp70 and hsp27, and homologous adaptation to reactive oxygen species induced by photosensitized WST11 was established. In addition to characterization of some key proteins involved, our observations provide a beneficial new working tool for the studies of mechanisms involved in oxidative stress and adaptation using light-controlled photosensitization.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2005

4-Hydroxynonenal induces adaptive response and enhances PC12 cell tolerance primarily through induction of thioredoxin reductase 1 via activation of Nrf2.

4-Hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) is one of the major end products of lipid peroxidation. It has been widely accepted that 4-HNE can induce oxidative stress, implicating into extensive stress-related diseases. In the present study, however, 4-HNE was found to exert adaptive cytoprotective effect at low concentrations, which was primarily through induction of thioredoxin reductase 1 (TR1) via transcriptional activation of NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2). Pretreatment with 4-HNE at sublethal concentrations significantly protected PC12 cells against the subsequent oxidative cell death induced by H2O2 and 6-hydroxydopamine. The cellular antioxidative glutathione system did not show any considerable changes, whereas the TR1 activity as well as the mRNA level was significantly elevated by the 4-HNE treatment. Cells treated with TR1 small interfering RNA exhibited less resistance to oxidative stress, and the adaptive response was completely abolished. The Nrf2 was transcriptionally activated by 4-HNE. Cells treated with Nrf2-small interfering RNA exerted lower constitutive levels of TR1 and exhibited less resistance to oxidative stress, and the 4-HNE-induced TR1 expression and subsequent adaptive response were again abolished in such cells. Treatment with 4-HNE at the adaptive concentration induced transient activation of extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1/2 and Akt/protein kinase B. Pharmacological inhibition of both these kinase pathways effectively attenuated 4-HNE-induced TR1 expression and subsequent adaptive protection. The above findings, taken together, suggest that stimulation with 4-HNE at sublethal concentrations induces adaptive response and enhances cell tolerance, primarily through induction of TR1 via transcriptional activation of Nrf2 signaling pathway, thereby protecting cells against the forthcoming oxidative stress.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1988

The synthesis in vivo of proteins in various tissues in chickens adapted to intermittent feeding.

1. Protein synthesis was estimated in vivo in breast (superficial pectoral) and tibia (gastrocnemius) muscles, liver, kidney, pancreas, crop, duodenum, jejunum and ileum, using L-[U-14C]lysine injection. The effect on incorporation of [14C]lysine 1 and 2 h after injection was examined in five chickens adapted or not adapted to intermittent feeding. 2. Incorporation of [14C]lysine into tissue decreased in magnitude in the following descending order: pancreas greater than jejunum, duodenum greater than ileum, crop, liver greater than kidney greater than tibia, breast muscle and blood plasma. 3. The incorporation of [14C]lysine into muscle protein was higher in chicks after 24 h of refeeding than after 24 h of food deprivation. These differences were higher in adapted than in non-adapted birds. On days of refeeding the rate of incorporation exceeded that found in chickens fed ad lib. 4. Bound 14C from lysine in the intestinal segments was less than in control birds after food deprivation and greater after refeeding in non-adapted chicks only. 5. A negative relation was observed between bound and free 14C in muscles and in other tissues. 6. Short- and long-term adaptations to feeding regimens are discussed.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2000

Interfacial adaptation of a Class II polyacid-modified resin composite/resin composite laminate restoration in vivo.

The aim of this in vivo study was to evaluate the interfacial adaptation of Class II resin composite open sandwich restorations with a polyacid-modified resin composite as a stress-absorbing layer (PMRC/RC). Twenty Class II box-shaped, enamel-bordered cavities were prepared in 10 premolars scheduled to be extracted for orthodontic reasons. An open PMRC/RC sandwich restoration was placed in 1 of the cavities of each tooth. The first layer, PMRC, in the proximal box extended to the periphery in the cervical part of the cavity. The following RC layers were placed with a horizontally incremental technique. The PMRC was excluded from the control cavity. The teeth were extracted after 1 month and the interfacial adaptation of the restorations was studied with quantitative scanning electron microscope analysis using a replicate technique. Gap-free interfacial adaptation was observed for the PMRC/RC and RC restorations in cervical enamel in 97% and 73%, respectively (P = 0.006). The gap-free scores for dentin were 87% and 64%, respectively (P = 0.022). Excellent interfacial adaptation was observed in both groups for the occlusal enamel 99% and 100%, respectively. The adaptation to occlusal enamel for the direct resin composite restorations was significantly better than to dentin or cervical enamel. A higher frequency of enamel fractures was observed parallel to the cervical margins compared to the occlusal. No dentin fractures were observed in the experimental groups. The PMRC/RC sandwich technique showed a statistically significant improved interfacial adaptation to dentin and cervical enamel in Class II enamel-bordered cavities. The clinical significance of the differences has to be evaluated.

Absorption↗
PubMed2004

Nutritional strategies to influence adaptations to training.

This article highlights new nutritional concerns or practices that may influence the adaptation to training. The discussion is based on the assumption that the adaptation to repeated bouts of training occurs during recovery periods and that if one can train harder, the adaptation will be greater. The goal is to maximize with nutrition the recovery/adaptation that occurs in all rest periods, such that recovery before the next training session is complete. Four issues have been identified where recent scientific information will force sports nutritionists to embrace new issues and reassess old issues and, ultimately, alter the nutritional recommendations they give to athletes. These are: (1) caffeine ingestion; (2) creatine ingestion; (3) the use of intramuscular triacylglycerol (IMTG) as a fuel during exercise and the nutritional effects on IMTG repletion following exercise; and (4) the role nutrition may play in regulating the expression of genes during and after exercise training sessions. Recent findings suggest that low doses of caffeine exert significant ergogenic effects by directly affecting the central nervous system during exercise. Caffeine can cross the blood-brain barrier and antagonize the effects of adenosine, resulting in higher concentrations of stimulatory neurotransmitters. These new data strengthen the case for using low doses of caffeine during training. On the other hand, the data on the role that supplemental creatine ingestion plays in augmenting the increase in skeletal muscle mass and strength during resistance training remain equivocal. Some studies are able to demonstrate increases in muscle fibre size with creatine ingestion and some are not. The final two nutritional topics are new and have not progressed to the point that we can specifically identify strategies to enhance the adaptation to training. However, it is likely that nutritional strategies will be needed to replenish the IMTG that is used during endurance exercise. It is not presently clear whether the IMTG store is chronically reduced when engaging in daily sessions of endurance training or if this impacts negatively on the ability to train. It is also likely that the increased interest in gene and protein expression measurements will lead to nutritional strategies to optimize the adaptations that occur in skeletal muscle during and after exercise training sessions. Research in these areas in the coming years will lead to strategies designed to improve the adaptive response to training.

Adaptation, Physiological↗