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PubMed1991

Depth of phonological recoding in short-term memory.

In testing the hypothesis that surface phonetic form is included in short-term memory (STM) representation, the tone sandhi phenomenon in Mandarin Chinese was exploited, and, as a prerequisite, the hypothesis that tonal similarity affects STM of verbal material in a tone language was also tested. In Experiment 1, subjects recalled visually presented sequences of seven monosyllabic Chinese morphemes having either the same tone or different tones. More errors were made on the monotonal sequences than on the multitonal sequences, confirming the effect of tonal similarity on STM. In Experiment 2, subjects recalled visually presented sequences of disyllabic nonsense words. The sequences were designed in such a way that half of them were subject to the tone sandhi rule in Mandarin Chinese, whereas the other half were not. The consequence of applying the tone sandhi rule, as designed, was to make all the first characters in the sequences identical in pronunciation, thus creating potential phonological confusion. More errors, indeed, occurred on the sequences subject to the tone sandhi rule than on those not subject to it, indicating the existence of a surface phonetic representation in STM. The findings in this study provide further insight into the phonological mechanism of STM. Different accounts for this mechanism are also discussed in the light of the new findings.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

The Ranschburg effect: the role of guessing strategies.

The Ranschburg effect refers to the finding of impaired serial recall of items repeated on a list. One account attributes this effect to the use of a strategy where subjects avoid using as guesses stimuli that they had recalled elsewhere on the list. Support for this interpretation is reported here. The Ranschburg effect is eliminated when subjects are instructed to avoid guessing. Also, the Ranschburg effect is found in partial report only when subjects are told that the crucial item occurred elsewhere on the list.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

Articulatory rehearsal and phonological storage in working memory.

The theoretical distinction between an articulatory control process and a short-term phonological store was supported in five experiments on immediate serial recall. In Experiment 1, articulatory suppression during the presentation and recall of auditory material abolished the word length effect but not the phonemic similarity effect. In Experiment 2, the two latter effects were found to be independent with auditory presentation. In Experiment 3, the effects of irrelevant speech and word length were found to be independent with visual presentation. In Experiment 4, articulatory suppression during the presentation and recall of auditory material abolished the phonemic similarity effect with a slow presentation rate. Nevertheless, in Experiment 5, articulatory suppression with a conventional presentation rate did not reduce the effect of phonemic similarity, even when a 10-sec interval was interposed between presentation and recall. These results indicate that the encoding, maintenance, and retrieval of spoken material within the phonological store do not depend on a process of articulatory rehearsal.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

A visuospatial "phonological loop" in working memory: evidence from American Sign Language.

In two experiments, the question of whether working memory could support an articulatory rehearsal loop in the visuospatial domain was investigated. Deaf subjects fluent in American Sign Language (ASL) were tested on immediate serial recall. In Experiment 1, with ASL stimuli, evidence was found for manual motoric coding (worse recall under articulatory suppression) and previous findings of ASL-based phonological coding (worse recall for phonologically similar lists) were replicated [corrected]. The two effects did not interact, suggesting separate components which both contribute to performance. Stimuli in Experiment 2 were namable pictures, which had to be recoded for ASL-based rehearsal to occur. Under these conditions, articulatory suppression eliminated the phonological similarity effect. Thus, an articulatory process seems to be used in translating pictures into a phonological code for memory maintenance. These results indicate a configuration of components similar to the phonological loop for speech, suggesting that working memory can develop a language-based rehearsal loop in the visuospatial modality.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

Electrophysiological evidence for parallel and serial processing during visual search.

Event-related potentials were recorded from young adults during a visual search task in order to evaluate parallel and serial models of visual processing in the context of Treisman's feature integration theory. Parallel and serial search strategies were produced by the use of feature-present and feature-absent targets, respectively. In the feature-absent condition, the slopes of the functions relating reaction time and latency of the P3 component to set size were essentially identical, indicating that the longer reaction times observed for larger set sizes can be accounted for solely by changes in stimulus identification and classification time, rather than changes in post-perceptual processing stages. In addition, the amplitude of the P3 wave on target-present trials in this condition increased with set size and was greater when the preceding trial contained a target, whereas P3 activity was minimal on target-absent trials. These effects are consistent with the serial self-terminating search model and appear to contradict parallel processing accounts of attention-demanding visual search performance, at least for a subset of search paradigms. Differences in ERP scalp distributions further suggested that different physiological processes are utilized for the detection of feature presence and absence.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1994

Effects of length, tonal structure, and contour in the recognition of tone series.

Four experiments on recognition of tone series are reported. The first experiment tested the accuracy of recognition in relation to length, contour complexity, and tonal structure of the series. Series comprised (1) 7 or 10 tones, (2) either a strong or a weak tonal structure, depending on the temporal ordering of the tones, and (3) few or many contour reversals. The second experiment used 7-tone series having either a strong or a weak tonal structure, depending on the mode (Ionian or Phrygian) in which the series was presented. Both experiments employed a same-different task in which a standard series was compared with either an exact or an inexact transposition, the latter type having one incorrectly transposed tone (mostly nondiatonic in Experiment 1 and always diatonic in Experiment 2). These experiments showed that (1) 7-tone series were better recognized than were 10-tone series, (2) series with a strong tonal structure were better recognized than were series with a weak tonal structure, and (3) contour complexity did not influence the responses. Two control experiments, using mistuned tone series, showed that the outcomes of Experiments 1 and 2 could not be attributed to nonmusical artifacts of the stimulus set.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1993

Alternating prism exposure causes dual adaptation and generalization to a novel displacement.

In two experiments, we examined the hypothesis that repeatedly adapting and readapting to two mutually conflicting sensory environments fosters the development of a separate adaptation to each situation (dual adaptation) as well as an increased ability to adapt to a novel displacement (adaptive generalization). In the preliminary study, subjects alternated between adapting their visuomotor coordination to 30-diopter prismatic displacement and readapting to normal vision. Dual adaptation was observed by the end of 10 alternation cycles. However, an unconfounded test of adaptive generalization was prevented by an unexpected prism-adaptive shift in preexposure baselines for the dual-adapted subjects. In the primary experiment, the subjects adapted and readapted to opposite 15-diopter displacements for a total of 12 cycles. Both dual adaptation and adaptive generalization to a 30-diopter displacement were obtained. These findings may be understood in terms of serial reversal learning and "learning to learn."

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2000

The phonological similarity effect in immediate recall: positions of shared phonemes.

Earlier literature proposes two ways phonological similarity could harm immediate recall: (1) It could increase the degradation of the representations of items in memory, or (2) it could decrease the probability that a degraded representation is correctly reconstructed. A multinomial processing tree model for each hypothesis was used to analyze an immediate recall experiment. Both gave a good account of the data, but, of the two, results favor the hypothesis that the effect of phonological similarity is to impair reconstruction of degraded representations. A second issue is whether positions of repeated phonemes in phonologically similar items matter. We found that mere repetition of phonemes produced a phonological similarity effect. Repeated phonemes in the same positions appeared to produce a greater effect. A final finding is that when reading rate was preequated, phonological similarity affected memory span by changing the time taken to recall a list of span length.

Attention↗
PubMed2000

Recall of two visual targets embedded in RSVP streams of distractors depends on their temporal and spatial relationship.

In the present study, I examined how the temporal and spatial relationship between two visual targets (T1 and T2) affects the recall of both targets when they are embedded in rapidly displayed distractors. Presented on a trial were two synchronized streams of characters, one to the left and the other to the right of the fixation. Independent of their spatial relationship, a U-shaped curve described the recall of the second target (T2) as a function of stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) between T1 and T2. It indicated the presence of the attentional blink with a T2 deficit sparing up to about 150- to 200-msec SOA. However, T2 deficit was greater at short SOAs (up to about 250 msec) when T1 and T2 occurred at different locations than when they occurred at a common location. When SOA was short (100 msec or so), recall of T1 was impaired when T1 and T2 occurred at a common location, but not when they were at different locations. The present findings can be reconciled with existing models (e.g., the interference model and the two-stage model) by distinguishing automatic and controlled attention gating processes at the transfer of perceptual representations to a more durable storage (e.g., visual short-term memory).

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Immediate serial recall of words and nonwords: tests of the retrieval-based hypothesis.

In two experiments, the immediate serial recall of lists of words or nonwords was investigated under quiet and articulatory suppression conditions. The results showed better item recall for words but better order recall for nonwords, as measured with proportion of order errors per item recalled. Articulatory suppression hindered the recall of item information for both types of lists and of order information for words. These results are interpreted in light of a retrieval account in which degraded phonological traces must undergo a reconstruction process calling on long-term knowledge of the to-be-remembered items. The minimal long-term representations for nonwords are thought to be responsible for their lower item recall and their better order recall. Under suppression, phonological representations are thought to be minimal, producing trace interpretation problems responsible for the greater number of item and order errors, relative to quiet conditions. The very low performance for nonwords under suppression is attributed to the combination of degraded phonological information and minimal long-term knowledge.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Structuring temporal sequences: comparison of models and factors of complexity.

Two stages for structuring tone sequences have been distinguished by Povel and Essens (1985). In the first, a mental clock segments a sequence into equal time units (clock model); in the second, intervals are specified in terms of subdivisions of these units. The present findings support the clock model in that it predicts human performance better than three other algorithmic models. Two further experiments in which clock and subdivision characteristics were varied did not support the hypothesized effect of the nature of the subdivisions on complexity. A model focusing on the variations in the beat-anchored envelopes of the tone clusters was proposed. Errors in reproduction suggest a dual-code representation comprising temporal and figural characteristics. The temporal part of the representation is based on the clock model but specifies, in addition, the metric of the level below the clock. The beat-tone-cluster envelope concept was proposed to specify the figural part.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

A feature model of immediate memory.

A feature model of immediate memory is presented, and simulations are described. List items are characterized as multiattribute vectors that can be selectively overwritten by subsequent external events and by the ongoing stream of internal activity. Degraded primary memory vectors are compared with intact secondary memory vectors, and retrieval likelihood is computed as the ratio of similarities. The model is shown to account for the major modality-based phenomena of the immediate serial recall literature, including modality-based temporal grouping effects and the negative effects of phonological similarity.

Attention↗
PubMed1997

Temporal binding errors are redistributed by the attentional blink.

When one searches for a target among nontargets appearing in rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP), one's errors in performance typically involve the misreporting of neighboring nontargets. Such illusory conjunctions or intrusion errors are distributed differently around the target, depending on task or stimulus variables. It is shown here that shifts in intrusion error patterns can be produced by the manipulation of attention alone. In a dual-task paradigm, the magnitude and distribution of intrusion errors changed systematically as a function of available attentional resources. Intrusion errors in RSVP tasks reflect internal capacity limitations for binding independent features. The present results support a two-stage model of RSVP target processing.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Modeling the effects of irrelevant speech on memory.

The feature model (Nairne, 1990) is extended to account for the effects of irrelevant speech and concomitant interactions in immediate serial recall. In the feature model, both articulatory suppression and irrelevant speech are seen as adding noise to the memory representation, the difference being that articulatory suppression diverts more resources than does irrelevant speech. The addition of noise impairs recall because it reduces the probability of successful redintegration. When a competitor is incorrectly recalled, rather than the correct item, this competitor is recalled out of order, producing an increase in order errors. Six simulations are reported that show that the model accounts for (1) the impairment by both irrelevant speech and articulatory suppression, (2) the irrelevance of the phonological and semantic composition of the irrelevant speech, (3) greater disruption when the irrelevant speech tokens vary, (4) the abolition of the phonological similarity effect for visual, but not for auditory, items, (5) the abolition of the word length effect for both visual and auditory items, and (6) the abolition of the irrelevant speech effect under articulatory suppression for both visual and auditory items. The feature model is compared with the two other major views of irrelevant speech, the phonological store hypothesis and the changing state hypothesis.

Auditory Perception↗
PubMed2000

The phonological loop and the irrelevant speech effect: some comments on Neath (2000).

Neath (2000) presents a useful overview of the evidence to be explained by any model of the effects of irrelevant speech on immediate serial memory and proposes a model accompanied by computational simulation. While his review is in general accurate, it is limited in its explanation of the crucial characteristics of the disrupting sounds. It also neglects strategic issues, particularly the tendency for subjects to switch strategy as list length increases. As a result, his model fails to account for the absence of an interaction between irrelevant speech and acoustic similarity for lists of span length. Points of issue between Neath's feature hypothesis and the phonological loop interpretation are outlined, and the contribution of his computational simulation is discussed.

Auditory Perception↗
PubMed2000

Interference in memory by process or content? A reply to Neath (2000)

The approach to the irrelevant sound effect by Neath (2000) is discussed in terms of the contrast between content-based and process-based interference. Four themes are highlighted: First, problematic features of the feature model are highlighted; second, results not considered by Neath are presented; third, empirical underpinnings of the feature model not related to the irrelevant-sound effect are questioned; last, the parsimony of the feature model is questioned. The balance of the evidence seems to be in favor of a process-based approach, on the grounds that it provides a comprehensive account of acoustic and task-based factors within the irrelevant sound effect, for both speech and nonspeech sound.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed2001

Behavioral and neurophysiological correlates of episodic coding, proactive interference, and list length effects in a running span verbal working memory task.

Updating refers to (1) discarding items from, (2) repositioning items in, and (3) adding items to a running working memory span. Our behavioral and fMRI experiments varied three factors: trial length, proactive interference (PI), and group integrity. Group integrity reflected whether the grouping of items at the encoding stage was violated at discarding. Behavioral results were consistent with the idea that updating processes have a relatively short refractory period and may not fatigue, and they revealed that episodic information about group context is encoded automatically in working memory stimulus representations. The fMRI results did not show evidence that updating requirements in a task recruit executive control processes other than those supporting performance on nonupdating trials. They did reveal an item-accumulation effect, in which signal increased monotonically with the number of items presented during the trial, despite the insensitivity of behavioral measures to this factor. Behavioral and fMRI correlates of PI extended previous results and rejected an alternative explanation of PI effects in working memory.

Adult↗