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PubMed2006

A multicomponent model of the theory of planned behaviour.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the measurement and predictive structure of multiple components of attitude (affective and instrumental), subjective norm (injunctive and descriptive) and an alternative measure of perceived behavioural control (PBC; skills/ability, opportunity, and resources) in the exercise domain. An additional purpose of the study was to compare the validity of the alternative PBC measure to a standard PBC measure for predicting exercise intention and behaviour. Participants were 220 undergraduates who completed measures of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and a 2-week follow-up of exercise behaviour. Results supported the discriminant validity in the measurement domains of all TPB components. Predictive validity of exercise behaviour for these components, however, was only evident for attitude and PBC components. Our alternative PBC measure was found commensurate with the standard PBC measure. Finally, intention significantly (p < .05) predicted exercise behaviour (R2 = .42), while affective attitude, and perceived opportunity significantly (p < .05) predicted intention (R2 = .47).

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Genetics of early cancer detection behaviours in Australian female twins.

Early detection of cervical and breast cancers is an important component of women's health strategy. Screening programmes, health professional interventions and preventive behaviours such as breast self-examination provide the means to this end. Our twin study sought to identify the relative influence of environmental and genetic factors on liability to early cancer detection behaviours, including use of cervical smear tests, mammograms, and breast examination. Additive genetic and random environmental effects models gave the best, most parsimonious fit to the data for each early cancer detection behaviour. The heritability of liability to Pap smear use was 66%, mammogram use 50%, breast examination by a doctor or nurse 38% and breast self-examination 37%. Genetic influences were behaviour-specific; there was no evidence for a common genetic influence on the four behaviours. Potential covariates investigated included age, amount of contact between co-twins, educational level and personality traits such as harm avoidance, novelty seeking, reward dependence, neuroticism, anxiety, depression, self-esteem, perceived control, interpersonal dependency and ways of coping. None were significant. The study was carried out before the implementation of national screening programmes with media campaigns to increase participation rates. Hence follow-up investigation, including data on regularity of behaviours, would be informative.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Viruses and behavioural changes: a review of clinical and experimental findings.

This review focuses on behavioural neurovirology. Profound changes in behaviour are observed following infection of the central nervous system by some viruses. Irritability, insomnia, hyperactivity and learning disability are some of the behavioural disturbances that have been described in both humans and animals with central nervous system infection. The reticular core neurons which innervate the entire brain play an important role in regulating behaviour. Some of these neurons--locus coeruleus, raphe and diagonal bands--send projections to the olfactory bulbs and can be targets for exogenous agents attacking the olfactory epithelium. In infant rats, vesicular stomatitis virus is transported along the olfactory pathway by retrograde transport and reaches the reticular core neurons causing destruction of raphe, diagonal bands and, to a lesser extent, the locus coeruleus. As the neurons degenerate, the viral antigens disappear and the animals sustain severe deficits in neurotransmitter levels and behaviour. Such a "hit and run" effect of the virus suggests the possibility that a similar mechanism may be operating in some human disorders. Apart from their intrinsic interest as possible aetiological factors, viruses may provide valuable tools in experimental work seeking to correlate behaviour, morphology and neurotransmitter function.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

How can adaptive behavioural plasticity be implemented in the mammalian brain?

The adaptive control of behaviour requires brain mechanisms for the selection (i.e. activation and suppression) of responses, as well as mechanisms for the modulation of the response vigour. The concept of motivation postulates the existence of brain centres that regulate the selection and strength of behavioural responses. The present paper provides examples from the behavioural neurosciences for brain mechanisms that lead to adaptive changes of an organisms responsiveness to external stimuli. The mammalian startle response is a simple defensive behaviour which is mediated by an oligosynaptic pathway located in the lower brainstem. The startle response is enhanced by aversive states (fear, anxiety) and attenuated by appetitive states (pleasure), which can be regarded as an example of motivational priming. Furthermore, the startle response is inhibited by a weak sensory stimulus presented shortly before the startling stimulus. The suppression of startle by a prepulse is an example of sensorimotor gating, a principle that is important for the hierarchical organisation of behaviour. This paper describes the neuronal mechanisms underlying the modulation (prepulse inhibition and fear potentiation) of the startle response in rats, and discusses the possible adaptive significance of these different phenomena of behavioural plasticity.

Acclimatization↗
PubMed2004

Behavioural effects of the newer antiepileptic drugs: an update.

The negative and positive effects of the nine newer antiepileptic drugs that have received a product licence in the UK or in the US are reviewed. The importance of avoiding misinterpretation of the data because of confounding factors such as alternative psychosis, the release phenomenon or drug interactions is emphasised. Vigabatrin has been associated with both psychosis and depression. Due to the concentric visual field defects that may occur with vigabatrin, its use is now limited, although it remains the drug of choice for infantile spasms. Lamotrigine seems to be largely associated with improvement rather than deterioration of mood and behaviour. It may have a role in treating affective disorder. Gabapentin probably has relatively little effect on behaviour but may exacerbate behavioural problems in some children with pre-existing difficulties. Topiramate may precipitate both psychosis and depression, but these are less likely to occur if the currently recommended lower starting doses, escalation rates and target doses are used. The data for tiagabine are limited, but there is no clear evidence for psychosis or depression being caused by this drug. Oxcarbazepine may be of value in treating mood disorder, but the information is very limited. There are few reports of behavioural disturbances with levetiracetam, but the data suggest that there is no significant increase in psychosis or depression. There are some reports of psychosis and other behavioural disturbances with felbamate, but the use of this drug is limited by the serious adverse effects of hepatotoxicity and aplastic anaemia. There is some evidence for psychosis with zonisamide, but there is also a suggestion that this drug may be of benefit in treating psychiatric disorders. Careful individual assessment of each patient should enable the clinician to determine whether the medication or some other factor is responsible for any behavioural disturbance.

Anticonvulsants↗
PubMed1986

Vasopressin and oxytocin. Their presence in the central nervous system and their functional significance in brain processes related to behaviour and memory.

Vasopressin and oxytocin exert pronounced effects on behaviour by a direct action on the brain. A single injection of vasopressin results in a long-term inhibition of extinction of a conditioned avoidance response suggesting that vasopressin triggers a long-term effect on the maintenance of a learned response, probably by facilitation of memory processes. In addition vasopressin improves passive avoidance behaviour, delays extinction of appetitive discrimination tasks, affects approach behaviour to an imprinting stimulus in ducklings, improves copulation rewarded behaviour of male rats in a T-maze, prevents or reverses amnesia induced by electroconvulsive shock, CO2 inhalation, pentylenetetrazol or puromycin. The majority of these effects of vasopressin in the various and sometimes relatively complex tasks may be explained by stimulatory influences of this neuropeptide on memory processes. Generally oxytocin exerts effects which are opposite to those of vasopressin and it has been suggested that oxytocin may be an amnesic neuropeptide. Various limbic system structures seem to act as the anatomical substrate for the behavioural effects of vasopressin. In particular the amygdala, the dentate gyrus of the hippocampal complex, the ventral hippocampus and the dorsal septum seem to be involved. Evidence has been obtained from experiments with homozygous diabetes insipidus rats and from experiments in which antisera were applied that endogenous vasopressin and oxytocin play a physiological role in brain processes related to memory. It appears that highly active fragments can be generated from vasopressin and experiments in which a fragment of vasopressin ([pGlu4, Cyt6]AVP-(4-8)) as well as an AVP-antagonist were used, reveal that the vasopressin receptors mediating the behavioural effects are situated in the brain and differ in specificity from the peripheral (blood pressure) vasopressin receptors. Generally the clinical data obtained so far with vasopressin treatment are in agreement with the results from animal experiments and they support the notion on the involvement of vasopressin in memory function. The sometimes reported conflicting results on vasopressin effects in certain patients (Korsakoff or Alzheimer) may have to do with the wide-spread pathology in these diseases.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Serum concentrations of oestradiol and progesterone and frequency of sexual behaviour during the normal oestrous cycle in the snow leopard (Panthera uncia).

Serum oestradiol and progesterone concentrations were measured at weekly intervals for six months, and correlated with daily behavioural observations in two adult female snow leopards (Panthera uncia). Three oestradiol peaks (> 21 pg ml-1; interval 3.6 weeks) were identified in a snow leopardess housed alone (two more were probably missed because of the weekly sampling schedule), and three oestradiol peaks were identified in a snow leopardess housed with a male as a breeding pair (interval 6 weeks). Daily frequencies of feline reproductive behaviour averaged 1.77 observations per observation period during weeks of high oestradiol and 0.62 during weeks of low oestradiol. Progesterone concentrations did not rise above baseline values (< 2 ng ml-1) in the isolated animal, but 6 weeks of high progesterone concentrations (4.9-38.8 ng ml-1) was recorded in the paired snow leopardess following mating. No offspring were produced. Snow leopards were observed daily for an additional 4.5 years. Sexual behaviour peaks could be clearly identified from December through April, and average daily sexual behaviour scores were higher during these months than during the rest of the year. Intervals between sexual behaviour peaks for the isolated snow leopardess averaged 3.03 weeks. The sexual behaviour of the paired snow leopards decreased for 8-9 weeks following mating when no offspring were produced, and decreased for 13 weeks in one year when a single cub was born.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Follicular, endocrine and behavioural dynamics of the Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) oestrous cycle.

Longitudinal ultrasound, behaviour and endocrine evaluations were conducted, over 14 to 18 months, in two young female Indian rhinoceroses (Rhinoceros unicornis) to characterize the oestrous cycle. Both females showed the same pattern of follicular development producing a large follicle (10-12 cm diameter) on one of the ovaries that persisted for 8.5 +/- 4.68 days before spontaneously ovulating. Ovulation occurred in all eight cycles monitored in a 6- to 7-year-old female versus 10 out of 14 cycles monitored in a 5- to 6-year-old female. Ultrasound examinations confirmed follicular collapse 48 h following the onset of behavioural oestrus in ovulatory cycles, while anovulatory cycles were associated with the formation of a haemorrhagic follicle. The day of behavioural oestrus corresponded to peak urinary oestrogen conjugate concentrations for each cycle, but anovulatory cycles had lower concentrations on the day of behavioural oestrus compared with ovulatory cycles. A transient increase in urinary progesterone metabolite concentrations was detected 1 day prior to ovulation. Irregular urinary progesterone metabolite profiles followed anovulatory cycles, reflecting varying degrees of follicular luteinization. In an attempt to ensure that a cycle would result in ovulation in the 5- to 6-year-old female, a GnRH treatment was tested during two separate cycles. Administration of GnRH on the day of behavioural oestrus resulted in an increase in urinary luteinizing hormone concentrations 2 h following injection. Regardless, ovulation did not occur in response to treatment. This study provides the first ultrasound data on ovarian activity in the Indian rhinoceros and establishes normal physiologic and behavioural relationships during the oestrous cycle that may facilitate the breeding of this species in captivity.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Introducing a clinical-behavioural scoring system for children's oral hygiene.

OBJECTIVES: Developing and testing a clinical-behavioural scoring system for assessing children's oral hygiene. MATERIALS AND METHODS: One clinical variable (the presence of dental plaque, measured using Silness and Loe's index) and one behavioural variable (self-reported tooth brushing frequency) were combined into secondary data analysis of research databases for 3-6-year-olds and 6-13-year-olds in a Mexican community. The combined scoring is an ordinal scale that depicts suitable, moderate and inadequate hygiene. Blinded dental examiners also collected dmft/DMFT data in standardised conditions. Data was analysed with Spearman's rho, Kruskall-Wallis, non-parametric tests for trends and Pearson's chi2 tests. RESULTS: 1303 children aged 3-6 years old and 1644 children aged 6-13 years old participated in the study. Clear relationships existed between the combined scoring system and dmft (p < 0.01) and between the scoring system and DMFT (p < 0.01), suggesting that the combined clinical-behavioural scoring system is a reasonably accurate measurement of the relationship between caries experience and oral hygiene in children in the given setting. CONCLUSIONS: The combined clinical-behavioural scoring system is a simple, easy-to-use tool that incorporates clinical and behavioural data commonly found in dental systems. Whether the clinical-behavioural scoring system can be generalised remains to be established.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1976

A comparison of the effects of neonatally administered testosterone, testosterone propionate and dihydrotestosterone on aggressive and sexual behaviour in the female golden hamster.

Female golden hamsters received one of the following treatments on the day following birth: (i) 300 mug testosterone propionate in arachis oil, (ii) 300 mug testosterone in oil, (iii) 300 mug dihydrotestosterone in oil, or (iv) oil alone. As adults all animals, underwent three tests for behaviour. First, while intact, females were observed in aggressive interactions with males. Secondly, after ovariectomy, females were primed with oestrogen + progesterone and tested for receptivity with a stud male. Thirdly, all ovariectomized females were primed with testosterone propionate and tested for male patterns of behaviour with a receptive female. Compared with the effects of oil administration (control), testosterone propionate administration resulted in increased aggressiveness and the capacity to show male patterns of sexual behaviour, together with a decreased capacity to show female patterns of sexual behaviour. Testosterone increased aggression and male sexual behaviour, but had no effects on receptivity, while dihydrotestosterone decreased some components of receptivity but had no effects on aggressiveness or the capacity to show male mating behaviour.

Aggression↗
PubMed1977

Role of gonadotrophin releasing hormones in the reproductive behaviour of female ring doves (Streptopelia risoria).

This work was carried out to determine whether gonadotrophin releasing hormone(s) (GnRH) plays a role in the courtship behaviour of female ring doves. In particular, it tests the hypothesis that a high dose of oestrogen suppresses the synergistic action of GnRH with oestrogen which is required to elicit courtship behaviour. The hypothesis was formulated to provide an explanation for a finding in a previous study that ovariectomized ring doves treated with a high dose of oestrogen, paradoxically, failed to show courtship behaviour. In the present study, treatment with synthetic LH releasing hormone (RH) enabled such birds to show typical female behaviour, thus supporting the hypothesis. This LH-RH effect was not apparently mediated by LH or progesterone since treatment with LH or progesterone failed to induce courtship behaviour. In addition, LH-RH can synergise with sub-threshold doses of oestrogen to induce both nest-soliciting and squatting behaviour. This portion of the LH-RH effect complements similar results reported for the rat. Finally, the results of thyrotrophin releasing hormone point to the specificity of LH-RH and the results of an anti-ovulation LH-RH analogue agree with the LH-RH effect.

Animals↗
PubMed1981

Suprachiasmatic lesions disrupt the daily rhythmicity in the sexual behaviour of normal male rats and of male rats treated neonatally with antioestrogen.

Male rats were treated daily with oil or 100 micrograms of the antioestrogen, ethamoxytriphetol (MER-25), for the first 10 days of life and, when adult, lesions were made in the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) of the hypothalamus or control lesions were made above the SCN and the rats were tested for sexual behaviour. Treatment with MER-25 enhanced the daily rhythmicity in both mounting and lordosis behaviour and SCN lesions disrupted these behavioural rhythms and the rhythm in the mounting behaviour of oil-treated rats. Rats treated with MER-25 and with SCN lesions showed high levels of mounting and lordosis behaviour throughout the light : darkness cycle. These results support the hypothesis that sexual differentiation by perinatal androgen stimulation uncouples the central rhythm generator from the neural substrates of sexual behaviour in rats.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

Behavioural and physiological effects of prolactin in incubating ring doves.

The role of prolactin in the maintenance of incubation behaviour in ring doves was re-examined and the dose-response relationships for behavioural, target tissue and body weight changes induced by injections of prolactin were compared in doves tested during the incubation phase of the breeding cycle. Doves given injections of prolactin twice a day starting on day 4 of incubation, during a 10-day period of isolation from their mates and nests, showed a higher persistence of incubation behaviour than doves injected with saline vehicle. However, the prolactin treatment failed to maintain incubation behaviour to the same extent as that observed in non-isolated untreated breeding pairs. Liver and body weights were higher and testicular weights lower in birds treated with high doses of prolactin than in non-isolated birds which had been incubating for 14 days. Good dose-response relationships were established between body, liver, crop and testes weights and the dose of prolactin administered. However, only a weak dose-response relationship was observed between prolactin and the maintenance of incubation behaviour. Overall, females injected with prolactin displayed more quiet sitting behaviour, less body weight gain and more gonadal regression than males injected with prolactin. Males in untreated breeding pairs had higher liver weights and lower crop weights than females. It is concluded that prolactin plays a role in maintaining readiness to incubate in doves, but that other factors may also contribute to this response. Further, it appears that prolactin mediates several target tissue changes which are sex-specific during incubation.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

Inhibition of post-partum maternal behaviour in the rat by injecting an oxytocin antagonist into the cerebral ventricles.

Endogenous oxytocin released into the brain at parturition may stimulate the onset of maternal behaviour. In this study an attempt was made to block spontaneous maternal behaviour following natural delivery in Wistar rats by the injection of an antagonist of oxytocin into the cerebral ventricles. The analogue antagonist, d(CH2)5-8-ornithine-vasotocin, was administered by injection into a chronically implanted cannula in the right lateral ventricle at hourly intervals, beginning immediately after the expulsion of the first pup. The antagonist did not interfere with the normal progress of parturition or birth-related behaviours. After delivery of the last pup, mothers rested for 40 min in the test cage with the pups having been removed. Four pups and standard nesting material were then presented. Latency to pup carrying and duration of pup manipulation, nest building, and time spent on the nest with the pups, as well as duration of autogrooming and general activity were determined. Saline-injected controls started gathering the pups immediately and usually showed all elements of maternal behaviour within 10 min. Antagonist-treated mothers showed a marked delay in the onset of pup grouping and other maternal behaviours. At the end of 1 h, two out of six mothers had not yet picked up a single infant. Pups left overnight with their mothers were gathered into the nest and suckled, and no long-term effects of the antagonist were evident on retesting. The effectiveness of oxytocin antagonist in suppressing the rapid onset of post-partum maternal behaviour supports the hypothesis that centrally released oxytocin is involved in this process.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Effects of progestins on sexual behaviour in castrated lizards (Cnemidophorus inornatus).

In many male vertebrates, androgens stimulate, while progesterone inhibits, sexual behaviour. Testicular androgens also control sexual behaviour in males of the lizard Cnemidophorus inornatus. However, administration of progesterone will reinstate sexual behaviour in castrated animals. Increased doses of progesterone did not result in increased numbers of responders; at all doses tested approximately 36% (n = 45) of animals treated with progesterone responded as reliable courters. A high percentage (60-68%) of progesterone-sensitive individuals maintained their sensitivity over a period of months. A synthetic progestin 17,21-dimethyl-19-nor-4,9-pregnadiene-3,20-dione with low rates of metabolism and conversion, also stimulated sexual behaviour in castrated C. inornatus. Finally, the synthetic antiprogestin 11 beta-4-dimethylaminophenyl-17 beta-hydroxy-17 alpha-1-propinyl- 4,9-oestradiene-3-one inhibited the stimulatory effects of progesterone on sexual behaviour but failed to inhibit the stimulatory effects of androgens. These findings indicate an unusual departure from the characteristic pattern of steroid sensitivities of neural centres controlling sexual behaviour.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Metabolism of dihydrotestosterone to 3 alpha-androstanediol in brain and plasma: effect on behavioural activity in female rats.

Six experiments were carried out to determine whether dihydrotestosterone (5 alpha-androstan-17 beta-ol-3-one; DHT) acts to inhibit oestradiol (OE2)-induced lordosis behaviour after its metabolic conversion to 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol (3 alpha-androstanediol, 3 alpha-Adiol). In experiments 1 and 2, ovariectomized rats were treated with several doses of DHT or 3 alpha-Adiol, injected with OE2 and progesterone, and tested for lordosis responsiveness. Significant inhibition of lordosis occurred after a dose of 3 alpha-Adiol which was approximately threefold less than the effective DHT dose. In experiments 3 and 4, plasma concentrations of DHT and 3 alpha-Adiol were measured after the injection of these steroids to ovariectomized rats at doses shown to be both sufficient or insufficient to inhibit lordosis. Behaviourally effective dosages of DHT and 3 alpha-Adiol produced circulating concentrations of 3 alpha-Adiol greater than those produced by behaviourally ineffective doses of DHT or 3 alpha-Adiol. At 30 min after injection of DHT (experiment 3), 78.8% of plasma androgens were in the form of 3 alpha-Adiol, while after injection of 3 alpha-Adiol, only 7.4% were DHT. When plasma DHT and 3 alpha-Adiol were measured at 3, 6, 9 and 12 h after steroid injection (experiment 4), plasma levels of 3 alpha-Adiol produced by the behaviourally subthreshold dose of DHT were significantly lower than levels produced by behaviourally sufficient dosages of DHT or 3 alpha-Adiol. In experiments 5 and 6, concentrations of DHT and 3 alpha-Adiol were measured in five brain regions 1 and 6 h after injection of behaviourally sufficient doses of these steroids to ovariectomized females. At 1 h after injection, similar levels of DHT and 3 alpha-Adiol were measured in DHT- and 3 alpha-Adiol-injected females, and DHT concentrations in the preoptic area were significantly higher in both groups than in any other brain area. At 6 h, animals injected with DHT had significantly higher levels of DHT in all brain areas combined than did 3 alpha-Adiol- or vehicle-injected animals. Brain concentrations of 3 alpha-Adiol were not different between groups injected with DHT, 3 alpha-Adiol or vehicle at this time. In brain, 34.6% of DHT had been converted to 3 alpha-Adiol after 1 h and 53.0% of 3 alpha-Adiol had been converted to DHT.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Androstenediol↗
PubMed2006

Effects of previous experience on the agonistic behaviour of male crickets, Gryllus bimaculatus.

Male solitary animals frequently enter aggressive interactions with conspecific individuals to protect their territory or to gain access to females. After an agonistic encounter, the loser (subordinate individual) changes its behaviour from aggression to avoidance. We investigated agonistic interactions between pairs of male crickets to understand how dominance is established and maintained. Two naïve males readily entered into agonistic interactions. Fights escalated in a stereotyped manner and were concluded with the establishment of dominance. If individuals were isolated after the first encounter and placed together 15 minutes later, subordinate crickets tended to avoid any further contact with the former dominant opponent. Moreover, subordinate males also avoided unfamiliar dominant and naïve opponents. They displayed aggressive behaviour only towards unfamiliar subordinate opponents. This suggests that the subordinate male change their behaviour depending on the dominance status of the opponent. Dominant crickets, in contrast, displayed aggressive behaviour towards familiar as well as unfamiliar opponents. If the interval between the first and second encounter was longer than 30 minutes, the former subordinate male showed aggressive behaviour again. However, if the subordinate cricket was paired with the same opponent three consecutive times within 45 minutes, it avoided the former dominant opponent for up to 6 hours following the third encounter. Our results suggest that the maintenance of dominance in male crickets depends largely on the behavioural change of subordinate individuals. Possible mechanisms to maintain dominance are discussed.

Aggression↗
PubMed2002

Foraging enrichment for stabled horses: effects on behaviour and selection.

The restricted access to pasture experienced by many competition horses has been linked to the exhibition of stereotypic and redirected behaviour patterns. It has been suggested that racehorses provided with more than one source of forage are less likely to perform these patterns; however, the reasons for this are currently unclear. To investigate this in 4 replicated trials, up to 12 horses were introduced into each of 2 identical stables containing a single forage, or 6 forages for 5 min. To detect novelty effects, in the first and third trials the single forage was hay. In the second and fourth, it was the preferred forage from the preceding trial. Trials were videotaped and 12 mutually exclusive behaviour patterns compared. When hay was presented as the single forage (Trials 1 and 3), all recorded behaviour patterns were significantly different between stables; e.g. during Trial 3 in the 'Single' stable, horses looked over the stable door more frequently (P<0.001), moved for longer (P<0.001), foraged on straw bedding longer (P<0.001), and exhibited behaviour indicative of motivation to search for alternative resources (P<0.001) more frequently. When a previously preferred forage was presented as the single forage (Trials 2 and 4) behaviour was also significantly different between stables, e.g in Trial 4 horses looked out over the stable door more frequently (P<0.005) and foraged for longer in their straw bedding (P<0.005). Further study is required to determine whether these effects persist over longer periods. However, these trials indicate that enrichment of the stable environment through provision of multiple forages may have welfare benefits for horses, in reducing straw consumption and facilitating the expression of highly motivated foraging behaviour.

Animal Feed↗