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PubMed1997

Determination of polyethylene glycol activated with cyanuric chloride in liposomes.

A simple method was developed for the determination of polyethylene glycol (PEG) 5000 activated with cyanuric chloride attached or adsorbed to the liposome membrane. The procedure is based in the measurement of the absorbance at 234 nm of the triazine ring of cyanuric chloride after disrupting the liposomal structure with CHCl3/MeOH (1/8, v/v). In this medium, the molar absorptivity of the molecule is the highest, and lipid does not interfere with the measurement. This procedure results in a convenient, sensitive, and rapid method for the determination of this kind of activated polyethylene glycol in liposomes. The minimal concentration of PEG measured is 50 microM, and so the method is sufficiently sensitive to quantify PEG 5000 in the minimal amounts used for protecting the liposomes from the action of serum. Values calculated by this method have been compared with those obtained by 1H NMR, and a good correlation between them has been obtained.

Cross-Linking Reagents↗

PubMed1998

Multianalyte detection using a capillary-based flow immunosensor.

A highly sensitive, dual-analyte detection system using capillary-based immunosensors has been designed for explosive detection. This model system consists of two capillaries, one coated with antibodies specific for 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and the other specific for hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) combined into a single device. The fused silica capillaries are prepared by coating anti-TNT and anti-RDX antibodies onto the silanized inner walls using a hetero-bifunctional crosslinker. After immobilization, the antibodies are saturated with a suitable fluorophorelabeled antigen. A "T" connector is used to continuously flow the buffer solution through the individual capillaries. To perform the assay, an aliquot of TNT or RDX or a mixture of the two analytes is injected into the continuous flow stream. In each capillary, the target analyte displaces the fluorophore-labeled antigen from the binding pocket of the antibody. The labeled antigen displaced from either capillary is detected downstream using two portable spectrofluorometers. The limits of detection for TNT and RDX in the multi-analyte formate are 44 fmol (100 microliters of 0.1 ng/ml TNT solution) and 224 fmol (100 microliters of 0.5 ng/ml RDX solution), respectively. The entire assay for both analytes can be performed in less than 3 min.

Antibodies↗

PubMed1998

Assessment of the effectiveness of composting for the reduction of toxicity and mutagenicity of explosive-contaminated soil.

Composting is being developed as an economical method for remediating explosive-contaminated soils and has been found to reduce the concentrations of target contaminants such as 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX). However, whether environmental safety is improved by composting can be determined only by assessing the effects of the treated material on living organisms. In this study two bioassays, the Mutatox assay and the earthworm acute toxicity test, were used to evaluate the effectiveness of a pilotscale composting demonstration in reducing environmental hazard. Explosive-contaminated soil was collected from a military installation and amended for composting in two adiabatic reactors. The unamended soil was lethal to all exposed earthworms, as were both amended replicates, prior to composting. Serial dilutions of the finished composts with artificial soil had earthworm 14-day LC50 values of 35.7 and 100% finished compost: artificial soil. Extracts of the initial materials were also toxic to bacteria in the Mutatox assay. Dilutions of those extracts to sublethal concentrations revealed a low level of mutagenicity. Extracts of the finished composts indicated reduced bacterial toxicity, but the mutagenicity was markedly increased by composting. The reduction in lethality reflected the attenuation of explosives caused by composting, as indicated by chemical analysis. However, the increased mutagenicity was a result that would not have been indicated by chemical analysis alone and is inferred to be the result of the formation of mutagenic metabolites of explosives during composting and their incomplete degradation.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

OH radical reactivity of pesticides adsorbed on aerosol materials: first results of experiments with filter samples.

Preliminary results of a new method to investigate the OH radical reactivity of semi-volatile organic compounds (e.g., pesticides) are presented. Terbuthylazine, simazine, sodium benzoate, and bromoxynil were adsorbed on highly disperse silicon dioxide powder as an unreactive carrier at a thickness well below one monolayer. The coated material was suspended in air as an aerosol, sampled on filters, and exposed in an 840-liter Duran chamber to OH radicals, produced by photolysis of hydrogen peroxide in the gas phase. Sunlamps on top of the chamber were used as cold light sources [T(aerosol) approximately 25 degreesC]. OH radical concentrations (10(5)<cOH (cm-3)<3x10(6)) were monitored in the gas phase using a set of four hydrocarbons with well-known OH reactivities as reference compounds. The triazine terbuthylazine (kOH=1.1x10(-11) cm3 s-1) was used as a reference compound in the filter samples. Simazine and isoproturon were found to react with a comparable OH rate constant with respect to terbuthylazine. Sodium benzoate reacts about a factor of 3 slower. Rapid degradation was observed for bromoxynil, explained mainly by photolysis. Besides the characterization and discussion of the experimental setup used, the rate constants obtained are discussed and compared with estimated values.

Aerosols↗

PubMed2000

Adenosine A2A receptors regulate the extracellular accumulation of excitatory amino acids upon metabolic dysfunction in chick cultured retinal cells.

The role of endogenous extracellular adenosine as a tonic modulator of the extracellular accumulation of excitatory amino acids (glutamate and aspartate) caused by metabolic inhibition was investigated in cultured retinal cells. The selective adenosine A2A receptor antagonist, 4-[2-[7-amino-2-(2-furyl)(1,2,4)-triazin-5-ylamino]-ethyl]ph enol (ZM241385) (50 nM), increased the release of glutamate (three- to four-fold) and of aspartate (nearly two-fold) upon iodoacetic acid-induced glycolysis inhibition, in the presence or in the absence of Ca2+. Blockade of tonic activation of A2A receptors by ZM241385 also increased (nearly two-fold) the ischemia-induced release of glutamate and aspartate. Furthermore, another selective A2A receptor antagonist, 5-amino-7-(2-phenylethyl)-2-(2-furyl)pyrazolo[4,3-e]-1,2,4-triazolo[1,5- c] pyrimidine (SCH58261), also increased the release of aspartate and glutamate by about two-fold in cells submitted to glycolysis inhibition. In contrast, the selective adenosine A1 receptor antagonist, 1,3-dipropyl-8-cyclopentylxanthine (DPCPX) (100 nM), did not significantly modify the extracellular accumulation of either glutamate or aspartate caused by inducers of chemical ischemia or glycolytic inhibitors. Inhibition of glycolysis also increased (about three-fold) the extracellular accumulation of GABA, which was virtually unchanged by ZM241385. Furthermore, the GABAA receptor antagonist, bicuculline (10 microM), only increased (nearly two-fold) the iodoacetic acid-induced Ca(2+)-dependent release of glutamate, whereas the GABAB receptor antagonist, 3-aminopropyl(diethoxymethyl) phosphinic acid, CGP35348 (100 microM), was devoid of effects on the extracellular accumulation of glutamate and aspartate. These results show that endogenous extracellular adenosine, which rises under conditions of inhibited glycolysis, tonically inhibits the extracellular accumulation of excitatory amino acid through the activation of A2A, but not A1, adenosine receptors, and this effect is independent of GABAA and GABAB functions in the cultured retinal cells.

Adenosine↗

PubMed1994

Rational automatic search method for stable docking models of protein and ligand.

An efficient automatic method has been developed for docking a ligand molecule to a protein molecule. The method can construct energetically favorable docking models, considering specific interactions between the two molecules and conformational flexibility in the ligand. In the first stage of docking, likely binding modes are searched and estimated effectively in terms of hydrogen bonds, together with conformations in part of the ligand structure that includes hydrogen bonding groups. After that part is placed in the protein cavity and is optimized, conformations in the remaining part are also examined systematically. Finally, several stable docking models are obtained after optimization of the position, orientation and conformation of the whole ligand molecule. In all the screening processes, the total potential energy including intra- and intermolecular interaction energy, consisting of van der Waals, electrostatic and hydrogen bonding energies, is used as the index. The characteristics of our docking method are high accuracy of the results, fully automatic generation of models and short computational time. The efficiency of the method was confirmed by four docking trials using two enzyme systems. In two attempts to dock methotrexate to dihydrofolate reductase and 2'-GMP to ribonuclease T1, the exact structures of complexes in crystals were reproduced as the most stable docking models, without any assumptions concerning the binding modes and ligand conformations. The most stable docking models of dihydrofolate and trimethoprim, respectively, to dihydrofolate reductase were also in good agreement with those suggested by experiment. In all test cases, it was shown that our method can accurately predict the correct docking structures, discriminating the correct model from incorrect ones. The efficiency of our method was further tested from the viewpoint of ability to predict the relative stability of the docking structures of two triazine derivatives to dihydrofolate reductase. Our docking method provides a useful tool for rational drug design and investigations of biochemical reaction mechanisms.

Algorithms↗

PubMed2005

Design, synthesis, and screening of biomimetic ligands for affinity chromatography.

Affinity chromatography is ideally suited to the purification of pharmaceutical proteins due to its unique bio-specificity characteristics. Tailor-made affinity ligands that represent a promising class of synthetic affinity ligands have been developed to target specific proteins and designed to mimic peptidal templates, natural biological recognition motifs, or complementary surface-exposed residues. These biomimetic ligands have been generated by a combination of rational design, combinatorial library synthesis, and subsequent screening of potential leads against target proteins. Small ligands based on a triazine scaffold also present exceptional selectivity and stability, which allows their use in harsh manufacturing environments.

Biomimetics↗

PubMed1995

Reactive red 2: a P2y-selective purinoceptor antagonist and an inhibitor of ecto-nucleotidase.

Effects of reactive red 2 and its parent compound acid red 33 were studied in rat vas deferens and guinea-pig taenia coli. In rat vas deferens, reactive red 2(1 to 10 microM) shifted the concentration-response curve for the P2X-purinoceptor-mediated contraction effect of alpha, beta-methylene ATP slightly to the right and progressively decreased the maximum (apparent antagonist Kd value 0.42 microM). Acid red 33 (1000 microM) shifted the curve to the right without changing the maximum (apparent Kd 386 microM). The concentration-contraction curve of noradrenaline was not altered by reactive red 2. In the carbachol-precontracted guinea-pig taenia coli, reactive red 2 (0.1 to 10 microM) shifted the concentration-response curve for the P2Y-purinoceptor-mediated relaxation effect of adenosine 5'-O-(2-thiodiphosphate) (ADP beta S) progressively to the right; only at the highest concentration of antagonist (10 microM) was the maximum slightly depressed; a pA2 value of 7.55 (Kd 0.028 microM) was derived from the shift. Acid red 33 (1000 microM) shifted the concentration-relaxation curve of ADP beta S to the right without changing the maximum (apparent Kd 171 microM). Reactive red 2 (1 to 10 microM) also shifted the concentration-response curve for the relaxation effect of alpha, beta-methylene ATP, which is mediated by an unclassified P2-purinoceptor, progressively to the right but simultaneously decreased the maximum (apparent Kd 1.6 microM). The concentration-relaxation curve of 2-chloroadenosine was not altered by reactive red 2. Pieces of vas deferens and taenia coli degraded 76 and 66% of added ATP (10 microM) within 30 min, respectively. Reactive red 2(0.1 to 100 microM) progressively reduced this degradation by up to 95%, with IC50 values of 3.9 +/- 0.6 and 3.9 +/- 2.3 microM, respectively. Acid red 33 (1000 microM) reduced the degradation by 30 and 20%, respectively. The results indicate that reactive red 2 is a relatively potent antagonist at both P2X-purinoceptors in rat vas deferens and P2Y-purinoceptors in guinea-pig taenia coli, with a 15 fold selectively for the P2Y-purinoceptor. It inhibits ecto-nucleotidase in both tissues. The dichloro-triazine residue that distinguishes the compound from acid red 33 greatly enhances the potency at both receptor subtypes as well as at the nucleotidase. As regards P2-purinoceptor subtypes, the results confirm the existence of two relaxation-mediating P2-purinoceptors in guinea-pig taenia coli.

Adenosine Triphosphatases↗

PubMed1991

Cibacron blue 3G-A inhibits cell separation of gram-positive bacteria.

A triazine dye, Cibacron blue 3G-A (CB), is an inhibitor of cell separation of staphylococcal spp. therefore, we examined the effect of CB on growth of gram-positive bacteria other than Staphylococcus. CB added to the medium of growing cultures of strains of genus Micrococcus, Streptococcus, Lactobacillus and Bacillus caused inhibition of cell separation. Moreover, in case of Bacillus and Lactobacillus, individual cells were elongated as filament. Strains of the genus Micrococcus were as sensitive to CB as genus Staphylococcus in which the minimum concentrations of CB needed for inhibition of cell separation ranged from 15 to 100 microM. Other strains belong to genus Streptococcus, Bacillus and Lactobacillus were less sensitive; the minimum concentrations were 100 microM--25 mM.

Bacillus↗

PubMed1993

[The combination effects of quercetin with the herbicides atrazine, cyanazine and gesamprim in mutagenicity tests].

The plant flavonol quercetin and the triazine herbicides atrazine, cyanazine, and gesamprim were examined individually and in combination for the induction of genotoxic effects. The sister chromatid exchange (SCE) assay and the gene mutation assay for 6-thioguanine resistance (HPRT) were carried out with Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells. Whereas no evidence of an increased SCE rate was found, the test substances caused a slightly increased mutation rate in the HPRT assay after metabolic activation with a subcellular liver enzyme preparation. Combination studies with two or three of the test substances did not result in higher mutation rates than those observed for the individual compounds tested singly.

Animals↗

PubMed1982

Anti-inflammatory effect of LA 2851 and reference drugs on some models of inflammation. Investigation of the mechanism of action.

LA 2851 (2-4-diamino-7-methyl-pyrazolo (1,5-a) 1,3,5-triazine), a bronchodilator and antiallergic compound, in type I hypersensitivity, has been tested orally for activity against carrageenan oedema and complement dependent, reverse passive Arthus (RPA) and zymosan oedema in rats. Pharmacokinetic determinations were also realized in order to correlate plasma blood levels and pharmacological activity. LA 2851 was found active in the first test but showed a more marked effect in the immunologically mediated RPA reaction and zymosan oedema. Among reference drugs tested, theophylline showed the same pattern in contrast with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents. LA 2851 and theophylline, using a superfused lung preparation, were found ineffective on the synthesis of cyclooxygenase products from arachidonic acid. LA 2851 as theophylline inhibited cAMP phosphodiesterase (PDE) but this inhibition does not seem to be involved in their anti-inflammatory activity since papaverine, a potent inhibitor of PDE, was totally inactive. The activity on RPA and zymosan inflammation was achieved at the drug plasma level in the range of those required to relax the trachea. The same antagonism was obtained with the 2 drugs at a lower plasma level with LA 2851 than with theophylline for the same dose administered (25 mg/kg). LA 2851 and theophylline did not inhibit all the components of the inflammatory process since maximum inhibition did not exceed 60% up to 200 mg/kg and 100 mg/kg respectively.

3',5'-Cyclic-AMP Phosphodiesterases↗

PubMed2002

Induction of blindness by formoguanamine hydrochloride in adult male roseringed parakeets (Psittacula krameri).

Formoguanamine (2,4-diamino-s-triazine) was known to be an effective chemical agent in inducing blindness in poultry chicks, but not in adult birds. The present study was undertaken to demonstrate the influences, if any, of this chemical on the visual performance and retinal histology in an adult sub-tropical wild bird the roseringed parakeet (Psittacula krameri). Formoguanamine (FG) hydrochloride was subcutaneously injected into adult parakeets at the dosage of 25 mg (dissolved in 0.75 ml physiological saline)/100 g body weight/day, for two consecutive days while the control birds were injected only with the placebo. The effects were studied after 10, 20, and 30 days of the last treatment of FG. Within 24 h of the treatment of FG, about 90% of the total birds exhibited lack of visual responses to any light stimulus and even absence of pupillary light reactions. The remaining birds became totally blind on the day following the last injection of FG and remained so till the end of investigation. At the microscopic level, conspicuous degenerative changes were noted in the outer pigmented epithelium and the photoreceptive layer of rods and cones in the retinas of FG treated birds. A significant reduction in the thickness of the outer nuclear layer was also found in the retinas of FG treated parakeets, compared to that in the control birds. However, the inner cell layers of the retina in the control and FG administered parakeets were almost identical. It deserves special mention that the effects of FG, noted after 30 days of last treatment, were not very different from those noted just after 10 days of treatment. Collectively, the results of the present investigation demonstrate that FG can be used as a potent pharmacological agent for inducing irreversible blindness through selective damage in retinal tissue even in the adult wild bird, thereby making FG treatment an alternative euthanasic device to a cumbersome, stressful, surgical method of enucleation of the ocular system for laboratory studies.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

In vitro antimicrobial activity of 3,4-dihydro-s-triazinobenzimidazole derivatives.

Among 31 3,4-dihydro-s-triazinobenzimidazole derivatives tested 12 compounds showed in vitro antimicrobial activity against G+ bacteria. Best results were obtained with substances containing naphthyl or halogenated phenyl group on the triazine ring. The tested derivatives had no significant in vitro antimicrobial activity against either the used G- species or fungi.

Anti-Bacterial Agents↗

PubMed1991

A magnetizable solid phase for enzyme extraction.

A method for the convenient and reliable preparation of magnetizable agarose beads containing iron particles is described. The beads were treated with the triazine dye, Reactive Red 120, and the matrix was examined for the ability to extract proteins from crude preparations using lactate dehydrogenase from porcine muscle as a model. The recovery and specific activity values of enzyme obtained using this matrix and magnetic field separation were significantly greater than those for enzyme purified by centrifugation and conventional dye ligand chromatography.

Adsorption↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Biotransformation of BOF-4272, a sulfoxide-containing drug, in the cynomolgus monkey.

BOF-4272, (+/-)-8-(3-methoxy-4-phenylsulfinylphenyl) pyrazolo[1,5-a]-1,3,5-triazine-4(1H)-one), is a new drug intended for the treatment of hyperuricemia. This report describes the pharmacokinetics and detailed metabolic pathways of BOF-4272 in the cynomolgus monkey, which were investigated using the metabolites found in plasma, urine, and faeces after intravenous and oral administration. M-4 was the main metabolite in plasma after intravenous administration. M-3 and M-4 were the main metabolites in plasma after oral administration. The Cmax and AUC(0-t) of M-4 were the highest of all the metabolites after intravenous administration. The Cmax and AUC(0-t) of M-3 were the highest of all the metabolites, and those of M-4 were the second highest, after oral administration. M-4 and M-3 were the main metabolites detected in urine and faeces, respectively, after intravenous administration, with M-4 and M-3 at 47.2% in urine and 19.1% in faeces, respectively, within 120 h after administration. M-4 was the only metabolite detected in urine after oral administration, at about 5% within 120 h after administration. M-3 was detected in faeces at 17.0% within 120 h after oral administration. These results suggest that, in the cynomolgus monkey, BOF-4272 is rapidly biotransformed to a main metabolite (M-4, a sulphoxide-containing metabolite of BOF-4272) and that M-4 is mainly excreted in urine and possibly also in bile, with subsequent conversion to M-3 by the intestinal flora. It is expected that the biotransformation of BOF-4272 would be similar in healthy human volunteers.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

G protein coupling of CGS 21680 binding sites in the rat hippocampus and cortex is different from that of adenosine A1 and striatal A2A receptors.

The effect of guanine nucleotide-binding protein (G protein) modifiers on the binding of the adenosine A2A receptor agonist 2-[4-(2-p-carboxyethyl[3H])phenyl-amino]-5'-N-ethylcarboxamidoadenosine ([3H]CGS 21680) and of the adenosine A1 receptor agonist [3H]R-phenylisopropyladenosine ([3H]R-PIA) to rat cortical and striatal membranes was studied. Guanosine 5'-(beta,gamma-imido)triphosphate (1-300 microM), which uncouples all G proteins, more effectively inhibited [3H]CGS 21680 (30 nM) binding in the cortex than [3H]R-PIA (2 nM) binding to cortical or striatal membranes or [3H]CGS 21680 (30 nM) binding in the striatum. N-Ethylmaleimide (1-300 microM) or pertussis toxin (1-100 microg/ml), which uncouple G(i)/G(o) protein-coupled receptors, more effectively inhibited [3H]R-PIA binding to cortical or striatal membranes and [3H]CGS 21680 binding in the cortex than [3H]CGS 21680 binding in the striatum. Cholera toxin (2.5-250 microg/ml), which uncouples G(S) protein-coupled receptors, more effectively inhibited [3H]CGS 21680 binding in the striatum than [3H]CGS 21680 binding in the cortex and less effectively inhibited [3H]R-PIA binding to cortical or striatal membranes. Treatment of solubilised cortical membranes with pertussis toxin (50 microg/ml) decreased [3H]CGS 21680 (30-100 nM) binding which almost fully recovered after reconstitution with G(i)/G(o) proteins. The K(i) for displacement of [2-3H]-(4{2-[7-amino-2-(2-furyl)(1,2,4)triazolo(2,3-a)(1,3,5)triazin+ ++-5-ylamino]ethyl}phenol) ([3H]ZM 241385, 1nM) by CGS 21680 was 110 nM (95%CI: 98-122 nM) in non-treated, 230 (167-292) nM in pertussis toxin (25 microg/ml)-treated and 222 (150-295) nM in cholera toxin (50 microg/ml)-treated cortical membranes; in contrast, the K(i) for displacement of [3H]-5-amino-7-(2-phenylethyl)-2-(2-furyl)-pyrazolo(4,3-e)-1,2,4-triazol o(1,5-c)pyrimidine ([3H]SCH 58261, 1 nM) by CGS 21680 was 74 (57-91) nM in non-treated, 71 (44-100) nM in pertussis toxin-treated and 147 (100-193) nM in cholera toxin-treated cortical membranes. Finally, CGS 21680 displaced monophasically the binding of the A1 antagonist, [3H]8-cyclopentyl-1,3-dipropylxanthine (2 nM), and the A1 agonist, [3H]R-PIA (2 nM), in 2 or 10 mM Mg(2+)-medium, either at 25 degrees C or 37 degrees C, in cortical or striatal membranes. These results indicate that CGS 21680 does not bind to A1 receptors and that limbic CGS 21680 binding sites differ from striatal-like A2A receptors since they couple to G(i)/G(o) proteins, as well as to G(s) proteins.

Adenosine↗

PubMed2002

Localization of adenosine A2A-receptors in rat brain with [3H]ZM-241385.

Adenosine plays a key role in the regulation of tissue oxygenation, neuronal firing, and neurotransmitter release. Four receptor subtypes have been identified and cloned: A(1), A(2A), A(2B), and A(3), although only A(1) and A(2A) receptors are prominent in rat brain. Much evidence now indicates that A(2A) receptors (A(2A)R) are highly enriched within striatal medium-sized spiny GABAergic neurons where they are closely associated with, and modulate, D(2)-dopaminergic receptors involved in motor control and reward behaviors. There is also consensus that A(2A)R are present in the nucleus accumbens and olfactory tubercle where they have been postulated to interact with prostaglandins in the regulation of sleep. There is less agreement as to whether or not A(2A)R are present in other brain regions. The present study describes an autoradiographic procedure that utilizes [(3)H]ZM-241385 (4-(2-[7-amino-2-(2-furyl)[1,2,4]triazolo[2,3-alpha][1,3,5]triazin-5-ylamino]ethyl)phenol), a highly selective A(2A)-receptor ligand. Saturable specific binding was found in the rat caudate putamen with a K(d)=1.1 nM and B(max)=1150 fmol/mg. Binding was also found in the nucleus accumbens and the olfactory tubercle, but was not detected in extra-striatal brain regions.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Non-aerosol detection of explosives with a continuous flow immunosensor.

Contamination of groundwater, soil, and the marine environment by explosives is a global issue. Identification, characterization and remediation are all required for a site recognized as contaminated with 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) or hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX). For each step, a method to accurately measure the contaminant level is needed. This paper reviews some of the current methods with emphasis on a single biosensor developed in our laboratory. Current regulatory methods require samples to be sent off-site to a certified laboratory resulting in time delays up to a month. A continuous flow biosensor for detection of explosives has been developed and tested for the rapid field screening of environmental samples. The detection system is based on a displacement immunoassay in which monoclonal antibodies to (TNT) and RDX are immobilized on solid substrates, allowed to bind fluorescently labeled antigens, and then exposed to explosives in aqueous samples. Explosive compounds present in the sample displace proportional amounts of the fluorescent label, which can then be measured to determine the original TNT or RDX concentration. The system can accurately detect ppb to ppt levels of explosives in groundwater or seawater samples and in extracts of contaminated soil. The biosensor has applications in environmental monitoring at remediation sites or in the location of underwater unexploded ordnance.

Aerosols↗