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PubMed2005

Spatial orientation in echolocating harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena).

Studies concerning the echolocation behaviour of odontocetes focus mainly on target detection and discrimination, either in stationary animals or in animals approaching a specific target. We present the first data on the use of echolocation for spatial orientation or navigation. Synchronised video and high-frequency recordings were made of two harbour porpoises trained to swim from one position to another across an outdoor pool in order to correlate swimming and echolocation behaviour. Both porpoises showed a clear range-locking behaviour on specific positions near the end of the pool, as indicated by a decrease in click interval with decreasing distance. The decrease in click interval followed the two-way-transit time, which is the time interval between the outgoing click and the received echo from the focal object. This suggests that the porpoises used focal objects as landmarks. The lag time, defined as the time between the arrival of an echo from a landmark and the emission of the next click, was task specific. The lag time was longer for difficult tasks (26-36 ms) and shorter for simpler tasks (14-19 ms), with some individual differences between the two animals. Our results suggest that echolocation by odontocetes is used not only for target detection, localisation and classification but also for spatial orientation.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Absence of overshadowing and blocking between landmarks and the geometric cues provided by the shape of a test arena.

In three experiments rats were required to escape from a pool of water by swimming to a submerged platform. The position of the platform was determined by the shape of the pool, which was either rectangular or triangular. A landmark that was located on the surface of the pool near the platform failed to overshadow (Experiment 1) or block (Experiment 2) learning about the position of the platform with reference to the shape of the pool. Experiment 3 revealed a similar outcome with cues outside the pool, which could be used, in addition to the shape of the pool, to identify the location of the platform. These findings imply that theories of learning that assume that stimuli must compete with each other for the control that they acquire may not apply to spatial learning based on the shape of the environment.

Association Learning↗
PubMed2000

[Deficits of Morris water maze learning in rats with striatal kainic acid lesions].

This study investigated effects of intrastriatal kainic acid administration, which induces selective neuronal cell death in the striatum sparing passing nerve fibers and terminals, on the acquisition of spatial learning in Morris water maze. Rats treated with bilateral kainic acid (0.5-1.0 microgram) into the striatum were trained to escape to a hidden platform under the water. Compared with control rats, kainic acid (1.0 microgram)-lesioned rats showed significantly longer escape latency in the place navigation, and in the following probe test lower rate of swimming within the quadrant where the platform had been placed. In addition, kainic acid (1.0 microgram)-lesioned rats showed longer latency in the cue navigation in which rats were trained to escape to a visible platform above the water. These deficits were caused by their tendency to swim along the wall of pool before approaching the platform and not by their swim difficulty. Results suggest that striatal neurons or neural circuits containing these neurons play an important role in the acquisition of spatial learning task, and the nature of this performance impairment was discussed in terms of both learning and attention deficits.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

When is it safe for babies to swim?

What factors are important when health professionals are asked "At what age is it safe to take my baby swimming in a public pool?". In a survey of primary health care doctors, no unified approach was identified but many considered immunisation essential before swimming. There is no evidence to support this view. Careful attention to the infant's body temperature is more important.

Body Temperature↗
PubMed1994

Extensor- and flexor-like modulation within motor pools of the rat hindlimb during treadmill locomotion and swimming.

EMG activity was recorded from the vastus lateralis (VL, knee extensor), rectus femoris (RF, hip flexor and knee extensor), tibialis anterior (TA, ankle flexor and digit extensor) and either the lateral or medial gastrocnemius (LG, MG, knee flexors and ankle extensors) muscles of 7 adult rats during treadmill locomotion and swimming. Most flexors and extensors are activated as a single burst but each is known to be modulated differently during locomotion. For example, the extensor EMG bursts are shortened and amplitude elevated as speed increases, whereas little change occurs in the EMG duration and amplitude in flexors. The RF and VL displayed a double burst of EMG activity per cycle during treadmill locomotion and a single burst during swimming. Kinematic and EMG analyses showed that during running, one of these EMG bursts occurred primarily during swing while the other burst occurred primarily during stance. Modulation of the burst occurring during swing approximated a flexor pattern, while the second burst was modulated like a typical extensor when running over a range of speeds and grades on a treadmill. These data suggest that motoneurons within a motor pool of a uniarticular (VL) as well as a biarticular (RF) muscle can be modulated by more than one cyclical input, probably of central origin, and that under some conditions several motor pools may share the same central commands.

Activity Cycles↗
PubMed1999

Effects of medial and lateral caudate-putamen lesions on place- and cue-guided behaviors in the water maze: relation to thigmotaxis.

Rats with dorsomedial or dorsolateral caudate-putamen lesions and sham-operated controls were trained on the standard hidden platform (place) task in the water maze. Compared to controls, rats with dorsomedial, but not dorsolateral lesions were slower to escape to the hidden platform and spent significantly more time swimming near the wall of the pool (thigmotaxis) on the early trials, but eventually achieved control levels of performance. When the platform was removed from the pool, all groups exhibited a significant bias for swimming in the training quadrant and crossing the former location of the platform. In the second phase of the experiment rats were given visible platform (cue) training in a different room/pool with the platform moved to a new location each day. Rats with dorsomedial, but not dorsolateral lesions required more trials to reach criterion; again, thigmotaxis was observed on the early trials. The third phase, carried out in the original room/pool, included a place-retention trial followed by a place-cue competition test, (i.e. a choice between the learned spatial location of the hidden platform and the visible platform in a new location). The rats with dorsomedial, but not dorsolateral lesions swam to the visible platform more frequently than the controls. In the final phase, the rats in both lesion groups exhibited slightly lower thigmotactic tendencies than controls in a standard dry-land open field, a finding inconsistent with the hypothesis that thigmotaxis in the water maze is due to increased fear or anxiety. Taken together with other behavioral and anatomical findings, the results suggest that the dorsomedial caudate-putamen, by virtue of its connections with limbic and prefrontal cortical regions, may mediate a response selection process that integrates cognitive information with stimulus-response tendencies.

Animals↗
PubMed1970

Augmentation of the virulence of murine coxsackie-virus B-3 myocardiopathy by exercise.

Coxsackievirus B-3 myocardiopathy was induced in weanling mice by intraperitoneal and intracerebral inoculations of the Nancy strain. Acute mortality was 5.5%. The cardiomyopathy is characterized by an early phase lasting about 9 days with myocardial necrosis, associated inflammation, and healing by fibrosis and calcification involving 25 to 50% of the contractile fibers in each affected mouse. Infectious coxsackievirus may be recovered from the heart during this phase. Continuing myocardial inflammatory lesions follow during the later phase, but infectious virus is no longer present. When mice were forced to swim in a preheated pool (33 degrees C) during both phases of their myocardiopathy, virulence was strikingly augmented. Fully half of the mice died of congestive failure, the majority while swimming. Hearts were dilated, hypertrophied, and grossly necrotic. The myocardium was transformed to a completely necrotic, inflammatory, calcifying mass. At the peak of the infectious phase, myocardial replication of coxsackievirus was increased 530 times in nurslings which had been forced to swim. Myositis in hind limbs was more frequent, and inflammatory lesions in perirenal and pericardial fat were more severe in the mice which were forced to swim. When swimming was begun on the 9th day after infection, the virulence and lethality (13.8%) of infection were moderately increased.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1984

Giardiasis in an infant and toddler swim class.

A Giardia infected Washington State child was found to participate in an infant and toddler swim class. A stool survey of 70 child participants revealed a 61 per cent prevalence of Giardia infection. Also, 39 per cent of 53 mothers and 28 per cent of 21 fathers were Giardia positive. None of the non-swimming playmates were positive. Thirty-five per cent of 23 children exposed only at a better maintained pool to which the classes had been moved four weeks prior to the survey were positive. No evidence of transmission to non-swim class pool users was found.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

An outbreak of norovirus gastroenteritis at a swimming club--Vermont, 2004.

John Snow's historic investigation of a severe epidemic of cholera traced the cause of infection to a common water source. Today, 150 years later, waterborne diseases remain a public health problem, and similar investigations are used to identify the source of infection. On February 3, 2004, the Vermont Department of Health (VDH) was notified of an outbreak of acute gastroenteritis among children whose only common exposure was attendance at a swimming club the previous weekend (January 31-February 1). This report summarizes the results of an investigation conducted by VDH and CDC, which determined the cause of the outbreak to be a combination of stool contamination, a blocked chlorine feed tube, and multiple lapses of pool-maintenance procedures. The findings underscore the importance of correct pool maintenance for rapid identification of water-quality problems to prevent outbreaks of swimming pool-associated illness.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1999

EMG activity of the muscles of the neck and forelimbs during different forms of locomotion.

We recorded the electromyographic (EMG) activity of 7 skeletal muscles in the forequarters and 1 in the hindquarters of 6 Thoroughbred horses during overground walking, swimming in a circular pool, and walking and trotting in a water treadmill. Bipolar fine wire electrodes were inserted into the muscles and the EMG signals were recorded using a telemetric system. The splenius exhibited tonic EMG activity during swimming. The brachiocephalicus showed its highest intensity during swimming followed by the walk and trot in the water treadmill and then walking overground. The triceps brachii caput longum had a similar activity pattern to the brachiocephalicus. The brachialis showed only weak EMG activity in all 3 types of locomotion. The extensor digitorum communis had higher intensity of EMG activity in the walk in the water treadmill than in other kinds of locomotion. The flexor digitorum profundus exhibited the most intense EMG activity during swimming. These results indicated that swimming evoked strong EMG activity in the antigravity muscles in spite of reduced gravitational force. Walking in the water treadmill may require more intensified EMG activity of the forelimb than the trot in the same treadmill.

Animals↗
PubMed1989

An outbreak of an enterovirus-like illness at a community wading pool: implications for public health inspection programs.

In June 1987, following an outbreak of an illness among children participating in a swim class, investigation revealed that 26 children who had swum in the outdoor wading pool were more likely to be ill than those who had not (OR 12.1, 95% CI = 2.9, 74.2). The pool chlorination system was operating improperly prior to onset of illness and chlorine levels were at or very near zero. This report emphasizes the need for operators and inspectors to give special attention to disinfection of wading pools.

Child↗
PubMed1998

Characteristics of respiratory function during swimming exercise in thoroughbreds.

Equine respiratory patterns during swimming were examined in five normal horses. The experiment included a preliminary warming-up stage and 6 circuits of swimming around an annular pool of a 50-meter-circumference. The horses were examined for respiratory rates, intratracheal pressures, inspiratory time (TI), expiratory time (TE), respiratory cycle (T; TI + TE), heart rates, blood lactate concentrations, hematocrit and blood gases. The respiratory rates were maintained around 25/min. Blood gas values changed significantly during swimming. The intratracheal pressures during expiration and inspiration increased significantly with exercise duration compared to the immediately after the warming-up stage. The duty ratio (TI/T) averaged 0.33, which implied that the expiratory time was roughly doubled the inspiratory time. We considered that a longer expiratory time may limit sudden collapse of airways by water pressure during swimming and prevent a radical decrease of air space volume, thus maintains buoyancy.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Alpha2C-adrenoceptor overexpression disrupts execution of spatial and non-spatial search patterns.

We investigated the role of alpha2C-adrenoceptors in the modulation of spatial and non-spatial navigation behaviour. Alpha2C-adrenoceptor overexpressing mice developed an ineffective thigmotaxic search pattern characterized by swimming close to the pool walls during both spatial and non-spatial water maze training. A subtype-non-selective alpha2-adrenoceptor antagonist, atipamezole (1000 microg/kg, s.c.), fully reversed this impairment in their search strategy. Withdrawal of atipamezole at the end of spatial training resulted in an immediate disruption of the search pattern in alpha2C-adrenoceptor overexpressing mice. The swimming pattern of alpha2C-adrenoceptor overexpressing mice during a five day free swimming period was normal, when no cognitive component was required. Diazepam (0.3 and 1.0 mg/kg, i.p.), neither improved the accuracy in finding the platform nor decreased thigmotaxis. These results suggest that alpha2C-adrenoceptors may modulate the execution of complex navigation patterns.

Adrenergic alpha-Antagonists↗
PubMed1998

A trial to detect behavioral changes by swimming stress.

We investigated behavioral changes in mice in a light/dark test after forced swimming stress in a streaming pool. Locomotion and rearing behavior in mice in a light/dark test was suppressed immediately after the swimming and gradually regained. Shuttle crossing between light and dark zones was also suppressed but time spent in a light zone was not. The suppression of locomotor activity by the swimming was not observed 20 min after it. Naloxone (10 mg/kg, i.p.) suppressed recovery of locomotor activity after the swimming while it did not affect a light/dark test in nonswimming mice. These results suggest that this model is useful for the study of behavioral and psychological changes after exercise, and that opioidergic systems may be involved in regaining spontaneous locomotor activity.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Allopregnanolone inhibits learning in the Morris water maze.

The progesterone metabolite allopregnanolone (3alpha-OH-5alpha-pregnane-20-one) inhibits neural functions, enhancing the GABA induced GABA(A) receptor activation. This effect is benzodiazepine like and benzodiazepines are known to impair memory. Acute effects of allopregnanolone on the hippocampus dependent spatial learning in the Morris water maze have not been studied. Adult male Wistar rats where injected (i.v.) with allopregnanolone (2 mg/kg), or vehicle, daily for 11 days. At 8 or 20 min after each injection, studies of place navigation were performed in the Morris water maze. Allopregnanolone concentrations in plasma and in nine different brain areas where analyzed by radioimmunoassay. The latency to find the platform was increased 8 min after the allopregnanolone injection, while normal learning was seen after 20 min. Swim speed did not differ between groups. A higher number of rats were swimming close to the pool wall (thigmotaxis) in the 8 min allopregnanolone group compared to the other groups. Allopregnanolone concentrations in the brain tissue at 8 min were 1.5 to 2.5 times higher then at 20 min after the allopregnanolone injections. After vehicle injections the brain concentrations of allopregnanolone were at control levels. Plasma concentrations of allopregnanolone followed the same pattern as in the brain, with the exception of an increase 8 min after vehicle injections. The natural progesterone metabolite allopregnanolone can inhibit learning in the Morris water maze, an effect not caused by motor impairment. The learning impairment might be due to a combination of changed swimming behavior and difficulties in navigation.

Anesthetics↗
PubMed1986

Improvement of ventilatory function by spa therapy in patients with intractable asthma.

Twenty-five patients with intractable asthma had swimming training in a hot spring pool for 3 months. The subjects were divided into three groups according to their clinical symptoms and ages. Changes of ventilatory function during swimming training were observed in in each group. The ventilatory function test revealed that free swimming training in a hot spring pool for 30 min did not induce bronchoconstriction in any of the groups. The values of ventilatory parameters such as FEV 1.0%, %PEFR, %V50 and %V25 were improved after the 3-month swimming training. The improvement of ventilatory parameters, especially %MMF, %V50 and %V25, by the training was most remarkable in the type II asthma group. The percent increase in %MMF, %V50 and %V25 was highest in patients more than 61 years of age, and higher in patients aged 40 to 60 years than in younger patients.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Weight loss without dietary restriction: efficacy of different forms of aerobic exercise.

Since obese patients with orthopaedic disabilities are often advised to undertake swimming as a part of a weight loss program, the effect of swimming on body weight was systematically studied. Minimally to moderately obese, otherwise healthy young women seeking to lose weight through a program of exercise without dietary restrictions were randomly assigned to one of three groups in which only the type of daily exercise was different. The three types of exercise were brisk walking, riding a stationary cycle, and swimming laps in a pool. All women slowly but progressively increased the time spent in daily exercise to 60 minutes. After 6 months or slightly longer, the women assigned to walking lost 10% of initial weight, the women who cycled lost 12%, but the women who swam lost no weight. The thickness of the subcutaneous panniculus over the middle of the extensor surface of the upper arm was measured using a Lang skin-fold caliper (Graham Field Co, New York, NY) and showed equivalent substantial reductions in the walkers and cyclists, but no change in the swimmers. The results of this study show that both walking and cycling are effective methods of reducing body fat, but that swimming is not.

Adult↗
PubMed1976

Biliary secretion in elasmobranchs. I. Bile collection and composition.

Bile composition and secretion were studied in tow elasmobranch species, Squalus acanthias (spiny dogfish shark) and Raja erinacea (small skate), after ligation of the common duct and insertion of cannulas into the gallbladder lumen. Fish were then allowed to swim freely in large pools and bile was collected in balloons attached to the externalized cannulas. Both species secreted bile for periods of 4-7 days at a maximum rate of 1.77 +/- .89 ml/kg per 24 h in Squalus acanthias and 2.66 +/- .89 ml/kg per 24 h in Raja erinacea. Comparison of the composition of cannula and gallbladder bile indicated that hepatic bile could be collected by this technique in both species without effective contact with gallbladder epithelium. The low concentrations of HCO3- and CL- and the gigh bile salt levels in dogfish gallbladder bile indicate that mechanisms for concentration and acidification of bile in the gallbladder developed early in vertebrate evolution. These results indicate that gallbladder cannulation in free-swimming elasmobranchs is a useful technique for the study of bile secretory and excretory function in marine species.

Animals↗