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PubMed2003

Ethical issues in modern biological technologies.

Today's biology-based technologies have emerged from a historical imperative and as an inevitable consequence of developments in modern biology beginning in the last half-century. They can be classified into almost 30 different areas, ranging from the use of gene therapy for human beings, enzyme engineering, stem cells and cloning, to marine biotechnology, bioinformatics, nanotechnology and biological warfare among many others. Many of them have major sociopolitico-economic, moral, ethical and legal implications. They include genetic engineering, gene therapy, tissue culture, stem cell work, the new DNA technologies, commercialization of traditional plant-based drug formulations, assisted reproduction techniques, cloning technologies, organ transplantation, bioinformatics, and biological weapons. Examples of the ethical implications of several of these items will be considered. They will be assessed with special reference to ethical implications in respect of assisted reproduction techniques, of worldwide importance today, particularly for a country such as India.

Biological Warfare↗
PubMed2000

Gametes, law and modern preoccupations.

This article surveys a range of recent media stories about human gametes, pinning them to a series of wider preoccupations within late modern life. Three preoccupations are singled out: first, kinship and relational identity; secondly, Nature and globalization; and finally, sexual difference and equality. Each one of these preoccupations has been characterised as iconic; debates about them are said to crystallize who we are, especially our uncertainties, and what we will be in the future. By indexing these preoccupations to the stories about human gametes, the article aims to upset both the increasing attempts to present assisted reproduction technologies as 'familiar' (as Nature's 'helping hand', for example) and the recurring assumptions about this technology's alleged 'novelty' and 'anomaly'. The article concludes that treating reproduction technologies, and their regulation, as 'familiar' risks complacency: equally, assumptions about their 'novelty' narrows the search for effective explanatory tools and regulatory mechanisms. The upshot is that it might be best for us to view reproductive technologies as both less 'familiar' and less 'novel'.

Attitude to Health↗
PubMed2001

The bugs of war.

Explore the source record for details and available documents.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Genomics and future biological weapons: the need for preventive action by the biomedical community.

There is an increasing concern within both the scientific and security communities that the ongoing revolution in biology has great potential to be misused in offensive biological weapons programs. In light of the 11 September tragedy, we can no longer afford to be complacent about the possibility of biological terrorism. Here we review the major relevant trends in genomics research and development, and discuss how these capabilities might be misused in the design of new bioweapons. We also discuss how the breakthroughs that have come from the genomics revolution may be used to enhance detection, protection and treatment so that biological warfare agents are never used.

Biological Warfare↗
PubMed2003

The physician Hans Reiter as prisoner of war in Nuremberg: a contextual review of his interrogations (1945-1947).

OBJECTIVE: Crimes against humanity by Nazi Germany led to the codification of procedures for trying medical professionals. The principles detailed in the Nuremberg Code formulated by the Allies represented their effort to prevent future excesses and embody today's Institutional Review Boards. Reactive arthritis is often termed Reiter's syndrome, after Hans Reiter, who was incarcerated at Nuremberg. METHODS: The authors reviewed Dr Hans Reiter's Nuremberg file at the National Archives in Washington, DC, and present chronologic excerpts of his interrogations between 1945 and 1947, with interpretative commentary. RESULTS: Reiter was involved with or knowledgeable of involuntary sterilization and euthanasia undertaken by the Nazi regime. He also played an active role in the design of a study that inoculated concentration camp internees at Buchenwald with an experimental typhus vaccine, which resulted in hundreds of deaths. CONCLUSIONS: A brilliant investigator and erudite intellectual, the career of Hans Reiter shows the importance and the relevance of scientific inquiry to adhere to principles enumerated in the Nuremberg Code. Because he was not the first to describe reactive arthritis, and in view of the above, Reiter's syndrome should only be used to cite an older reference that uses the term or in a historical context.

Arthritis, Reactive↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Walking the line between feminism and infertility: implications for nursing, medicine, and patient care.

Traditionally infertility has been viewed as a medical condition and has been managed within the medical model of diagnosis, treatment, and cure. The prevalence of infertility has been medically explained by women's sexual promiscuity, pursuit of professional career advancement, and psychological immaturity. Although authors have recently recognized an equitable proportion of infertility problems attributable to male factors, the vast majority of infertility testing and treatment procedures remain directed toward women. Reproductive technologies and their potential for perpetual treatment create a scenario of vulnerability for the infertile woman, which demands the attention of care providers who advocate feminist values of health. In this article, we present a historical overview of infertility and offer a feminist perspective for providing physical and emotional health care to infertile women. Strategies for integrating feminist perspectives of health into infertility programs are discussed.

Attitude to Health↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The potential for abuse of genetics in militarily significant biological weapons.

Concern has been expressed at successive Review Conferences of the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC) regarding the possible misuse of new biological knowledge; this article reviews some of these developments. Genetic manipulation, and genomics in particular, would modify existing pathogens and render previously harmless organisms pathogenic. Viruses could be modified as vectors to alter their pathogenicity in animals and man or act as carriers for genes or toxins. Plant pathogens, particularly fungi, could be modified as biological warfare agents against crops. An effective verification protocol for the BTWC is an essential part of the web of deterrence against these developments.

Biological Warfare↗
PubMed2003

Biological weapons, genetics and social analysis: emerging responses, emerging issues--I.

Recent terrorist attacks in the USA have generated significant attention in many countries to the threats posed by biological weapons. In response to these events and the spectre of future attacks, bioscientists and professional organizations have begun or intensified asking questions about the possible malign applications of their research. As Part I of a two-part article, this paper surveys how genetics might contribute to the development of novel forms of weaponry. It is further argued that the dilemmas and difficulties facing bioscientists pose pressing and thorny questions for the hitherto agendas and orientations of those concerned with the social, ethical and political implications of genetics. Part II will examine the emerging responses initiated by biomedical organizations and spokespersons in the US and the UK. This will be done with a view to asking how scientific and medical research communities are defining and policing notions of professionalism, responsibility and accountability. On the basis of this, suggested lines for future social analysis will be offered.

Biological Warfare↗
PubMed2005

Psychiatry in the Nazi era.

OBJECTIVES: To update Canadian psychiatrists on recent information from newly discovered Berlin archives about the actions of physicians, especially psychiatrists, during the era of National Socialism in Germany and to encourage introspection about the role of the medical profession, its relationship with government, and its vulnerability to manipulation by ideology and economic pressures. METHOD: This is a selective review of the literature on the collaboration of physicians, especially psychiatrists, in the sterilization, experimentation, and annihilation of patients with mental illness before and during World War II. RESULTS: Directed to value the health of the nation over the care of individual patients and convinced that a hierarchy of worth distinguished one person from another, German psychiatrists were enlisted to commit atrocities during the Nazi period. CONCLUSIONS: The values of care and compassion can be eroded; this knowledge demands constant vigilance.

Adolescent Psychiatry↗
PubMed2005

The 1942 'euthanasia' debate in the American Journal of Psychiatry.

This paper discusses and analyses three articles appearing in a 1942 issue of the American Journal of Psychiatry. In the first, neurologist Foster Kennedy argued that 'feebleminded' people should be killed (an act which he referred to as 'euthanasia'). The rebuttal was written by psychiatrist Leo Kanner, who argued against 'euthanasia'. An unsigned editorial discussing these positions clearly sided with Kennedy: that 'euthanasia' would be appropriate in some cases, and that parents' opposition to this procedure should be the subject of psychiatric concern. The arguments are analysed and discussed within the context of eugenics and the murder of mental patients in Germany. Finally, the author points out that currently ascendant genetic theories in psychiatry could be a precursor for future proposals similar to Kennedy's.

Adult↗