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PubMed1994

Chemicals used by the poultry industry.

The safe and effective use of chemicals within the live production phases of the poultry industry requires the implementation of integrated health programs. Chemical programs will vary with regard to phase, intended usage, and method and frequency of application. The term "chemicals" herein presented excludes drugs and non-nutritive feed additives, with primary emphasis on sanitation products (i.e., detergents, disinfectants, sanitizers, deodorizers, descalers, and possible combinations), pesticides (i.e., insecticides and rodenticides), and brief mention of soil litter treatments for environmental management of air quality at the farm level. Chemical usage by phase, location, and frequency of application are summarized. Products that are effective, environmentally and user friendly, and applied within label specification will provide for safe, economical, and long-term success of poultry health programs. Such programs must be supported by management and maintained through education and product stewardship administered cooperatively with chemical suppliers, technical consultants, and end users.

Agrochemicals↗
PubMed1994

Environmental management: a re-emerging vector control strategy.

Vector control may be accomplished by environmental management (EM), which consists of permanent or long-term modification of the environment, temporary or seasonal manipulation of the environment, and modifying or changing our life styles and practices to reduce human contact with infective vectors. The primary focus of this paper is EM in the control of human malaria, filariasis, arboviruses, Chagas' disease, and schistosomiasis. Modern EM developed as a discipline based primarily in ecologic principles and lessons learned from the adverse environmental impacts of rural development projects. Strategies such as the suppression of vector populations through the provision of safe water supplies, proper sanitation, solid waste management facilities, sewerage and excreta disposal systems, water manipulation in dams and irrigation systems, vector diversion by zooprophylaxis, and vector exclusion by improved housing, are discussed with appropriate examples. Vectors of malaria, filariasis, Chagas' disease, and schistosomiasis have been controlled by drainage or filling aquatic breeding sites, improved housing and sanitation, the use of expanded polystyrene beads, zooprophylaxis, or the provision of household water supplies. Community participation has been effective in the suppression of dengue vectors in Mexico and the Dominican Republic. Alone or combined with other vector control methods, EM has been proven to be a successful approach to vector control in a number of places. The future of EM in vector control looks promising.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Successful control of schistosomiasis in large sugar irrigation estates of Zimbabwe.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the impact of schistosomiasis control activities in Hippo Valley Sugar Estates. DESIGN: A situation analysis of schistosomiasis control activities in Hippo Valley Estates was made. Snail and parasitology data collected over 13 and 21 years respectively was analysed to determine the impact of control activities. SETTING: Only data collected in Hippo Valley Sugar Estates was analysed. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Reduction in prevalence of schistosomiasis and snail population densities. RESULTS: Prevalence of Schistosoma haematobium reduced from over 50% in 1980 to below 10% in 2000. Similarly, prevalence of S. mansoni reduced from 25% in 1980 to below 10% in 2000. Over the years, prevalences for both S. haematobium and S. mansoni fluctuated but showed a general decline. Snail numbers in water bodies within the estates fluctuated over the years, dropping from over 100,000 snails in 1986 to about 10,000 snails in 1998. The amount of niclosamid used to control snails varied over the years with less than 10 kg per year being used between 1995 and 1998. A marked improvement in safe water and sanitation facilities was noted. CONCLUSION: The significant reduction in prevalence and snail numbers suggests that the Hippo Valley Estates control programme has been successful. The success is attributed to chemotherapy and snail control supported by general improvement in safe water and sanitation facilities and health education.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Comparison of water wash, trimming, and combined hot water and lactic acid treatments for reducing bacteria of fecal origin on beef carcasses.

Cleaning treatments, such as high-pressure water wash at 35 degrees C or trim, alone and combined with sanitizing treatments, such as hot water (95 degrees C at the source), warm (55 degrees C) 2% lactic acid spray, and combinations of these two sanitizing methods, were compared for their effectiveness in reducing inoculated numbers (5.0 to 6.0 log CFU/cm2) of Salmonella typhimurium, Escherichia coli O157:H7, aerobic plate counts, Enterobacteriaceae, total coliforms, thermotolerant coliforms, and generic E. coli on hot beef carcass surface areas in a model carcass spray cabinet. Log reductions in numbers of all tested organisms by water wash or trim alone were significantly smaller than the log reductions obtained by the different combined treatments. Regardless of the cleaning treatment (water wash or trim) or surface area, the range for mean log reductions by hot water was from 4.0 to > 4.8 log CFU/cm2, by lactic acid spray was from 4.6 to > 4.9 log CFU/cm2, by hot water followed by lactic acid spray was from 4.5 to > 4.9 log CFU/cm2, and by lactic acid spray followed by hot water was from 4.4 to > 4.6 log CFU/cm2, for S. typhimurium and E. coli O157:H7. Identical reductions were obtained for thermotolerant coliforms and generic E. coli. No differences in bacterial reductions were observed for different carcass surface regions. Water wash and trim treatments caused spreading of the contamination to other areas of the carcass surface while providing an overall reduction in fecal or pathogenic contamination on carcass surface areas. This relocated contamination after either water wash or trim was most effectively reduced by following with hot water and then lactic acid spray. This combined treatment yielded 0% positive samples for S. typhimurium, E. coli O157:H7, thermotolerant coliforms, and generic E. coli on areas outside the inoculated areas, whereas percent positive samples after applying other combined treatments ranged from 22 to 44% for S. typhimurium, 0 to 44% for E. coli O157:H7, and 11 to 33% for both thermotolerant coliforms and generic E. coli. From data collected in this study, it is possible to choose an effective, inexpensive treatment to reduce bacterial contamination on beef carcasses. In addition, the similar reduction rates of total coliforms, thermotolerant coliforms, or generic E. coli may be useful in identifying an indicator to verify the effectiveness of the selected treatment as a critical control point in a Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point program.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Preventive medicine in Task Force 1st Armored Division during Operation Iraqi Freedom.

Task Force 1st Armored Division (TF1AD) deployed to Baghdad and South Central Iraq from April 2003 through July 2004. TF1AD preventive medicine had responsibility for ensuring divisional force health protection, including soldier health, disease and nonbattle injury mitigation, health promotion, and civil affairs operations. Heat injury, diarrheal disease, skin and respiratory disease, and eye and musculoskeletal injury rates were high. Command emphasis and preventive medicine action resulted in better living conditions and personal sanitation. To counter the threat, the TF1AD preventive medicine/ division surgeon team used a "spiraling out" approach that focused attention first on hand-washing, potable water, vector control, waste disposal, and food sanitation and later on noise, asbestos, environmental contamination, and radiation. In April 2004, TF1AD shifted focus to the Multinational Division Central-South region of Iraq and many similar problems occurred as in May 2003, although they were less severe, in part because of the lessons learned in Baghdad.

Communicable Disease Control↗
PubMed2001

Experimental ivermectin treatment of sarcoptic mange and establishment of a mange-free population of Spanish ibex.

Ivermectin was used to treat sarcoptic mange in Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica hispanica). Its therapeutic effectiveness was analyzed when it was administered through subcutaneous injection, to sick animals in the consolidation stage of mange (third phase) and, with double injections to chronically affected animals (fourth phase) at a dosage of 0.2 or 0.4 mg/kg body weight (bw). Three wk after treatment, the animals in the third phase of mange treated with a high dose (0.4 mg/kg bw) of ivermectin were completely cured. The same result was achieved after 4 wk of treatment in those animals in phase 3 of mange when 0.2 mg/kg body weight was used. Double injection with ivermectin, even at high doses, did not guarantee the complete cure of all cases of sarcoptic mange in the chronic stage (phase 4); only three of six animals were free of Sarcoptes scabiei. The second experiment consisted on the application of a sanitation program in order to obtain a population of Spanish ibex free from S. scabiei, starting with free-ranging animals, some of them healthy and others sick. After capture the animals were classified as chronically ill, in which case they were excluded from the program, mite carriers and healthy specimens. All the animals were treated first topically with foxim (500 mg/l) and subcutaneously with ivermectin (0.4 mg/kg bw). The infected animals were housed in the treatment pen, and received two doses of ivermectin (0.2 mg/kg bw) at an interval of 15 days, then spent 15 days in the quarantine pen, where they received a further dose before they were included in the pool of healthy animals, and immediately were placed in the quarantine phase. The sanitation we implemented was fully effective in curing the affliction of Spanish ibex affected by S. scabiei.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Challenges for health and water resources in the Birim districts of eastern Ghana.

In the late 1970s and early '1980s, the Ghana Water and Sewerage Corporation (GWSC) with assistance from the government of Germany (KfW through IGIP) drilled 144 wells in the Birim North and South Districts of the Eastern Region of Ghana. This was part of an overall provision of water to rural communities which later came to be known as the 3000 Wells Project. The wells were supply-driven and were centrally-maintained, without community involvement in planning and operation. Earlier in 1970, an agricultural development project was also promoted in the two otherwise deprived districts with the aim of increasing output of produce and thereby improving incomes of rural farmers with emphasis on cocoa, rice and oilpalm. In 1992, under a United Nations' Development Programme Rural Water and Sanitation Project with the GWSC, another 141 wells were drilled and assistance provided to households to build 750 Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) latrines coupled with hygiene education under a demand-driven community management approach. (About 60% of the budget was allocated to water, another 30% to sanitation while some 10% was meant for hygiene education interventions). All the wells were fitted with modified Indian Mk II pumps. These measures together were meant to improve the health of rural communities and make them contribute more positively to national development. The paper looks at some of the possible factors of the two water projects and the agricultural development project that could impact negatively on the water resources and health of people in these two districts.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2000

A comparison of the extent and impacts of sewage contamination on urban groundwater in developed and developing countries.

In much of the world urban groundwater is an important resource for domestic and industrial use. In many developing countries, groundwater taken directly (untreated) from individual springs and wells is the only option available to communities where comprehensive, reliable reticulated supply systems are absent. A common feature of urban groundwater in both developing and developed countries is contamination by sewage. Current and recent research is presented that shows sewer leakage impacts groundwater in developed countries whilst on-site sanitation contaminates groundwater in developing countries. In the latter case, the competing demands of sanitation and groundwater protection must be addressed. Limitations on the usefulness of accepted standard sewage indicator species in groundwater are also highlighted. As sewage contamination of groundwater is usually addressed only if an actual health risk is posed, it is vital both to developed and developing countries to understand the movement of actual pathogens in groundwater in the context of groundwater management. Further research is required on microbial survival and health risks posed by sewage contamination.

Cross-Cultural Comparison↗
PubMed2002

The risk of Ascaris lumbricoides infection in children as an environmental health indicator to guide preventive activities in Caparaó and Alto Caparaó, Brazil.

OBJECTIVE: To develop an environmental health indicator for use as a basis for developing preventive measures against Ascaris lumbricoides infection in children from the rural municipalities of Caparaó and Alto Caparaó, in Minas Gerais, Brazil. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was conducted between May and September 1998 among 1171 children under 14 years of age living in 588 dwellings selected from 11 communities. Trained interviewers used a questionnaire to identify risk factors for infection (socioeconomic, sanitation and hygiene variables) and collected stool samples from each child for parasitological tests. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of A. lumbricoides infection was 12.2%. The results showed the protective effects of availability of water in the washbasin and better hygiene, sanitation and socioeconomic status; the interactive effect of crowding was five times larger in households without water in the washbasin than in those having water. There was a statistically significant association between infection and children's age. CONCLUSION: The environmental health indicator, which incorporated the most significant biological, environmental and social factors associated with the risk of A. lumbricoides infection in children from these communities, should contribute to the development of surveillance tools and health protection measures in this population.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2002

Options for alternative types of sewerage and treatment systems directed to improvement of the overall performance.

Technology for future houses may well include a high-tech water recycling unit that makes tapwater while people drink bottled water of high quality. There may be toilets that produce just a bag of dry fertiliser per year, hopefully without fossil energy. Rainwater infiltration is increasingly replacing storm sewers anyway. Many urban areas of the future could simply be without sewerage systems. Technical feasibility is given even today and economic feasability is coming closer by advances in membrane technology. However, there are more likely scenarios than this. One person produces about 500 litres of urine and 50 litres of faeces per year (= blackwater). The same person, produces in a range of 20,000 to over 100,000 litres of wastewater. Black- and greywater (wastewater without toilet) do have very different characteristics. If blackwater is collected separately with low dilution it can be converted to safe natural fertiliser, replacing synthetic products and preventing spreadout of pathogens and other pollutants to receiving waters. New sanitation concepts are now built in several countries as pilot projects. One example is a vacuum-biogas system for around 400 inhabitants that has been built in Lübeck, Germany. It does perform recovery of resources and energy in an urban area. This type of sanitation can serve around up to 10,000 people and can be arranged in independent modules for larger settlements. Another pilot project based on urine-sorting flush toilets (no-mix-toilets) has been built in the rural water-mill museum "Lambertsmühle" near Cologne, Germany. Urine or yellow water is collected with low dilution and can be used as fertiliser as projects in Sweden have shown--the nutrient composition suits many types of soil. Brownwater (the solids and flush from the sorting toilet) is converted to small volume by a two-chamber composting tank with a filtration system. The compost can be used as soil conditioner. These and other concepts can be economic and show new ways for the many water scarce areas around the world, too.

Cities↗
PubMed2002

[The 150th anniversary of the birth of Dr. Jonas Basanavicius: a great Humanitarian and a great Physician, faithful servant of Aesculapius and Lithuania].

On the occasion of the 150th birth anniversary of Doctor Jonas Basanavicius (1851-1927), the most significant figure of the national renaissance of Lithuanians at the end of 19th century, the focus is laid once more on the academic heritage of this distinguished personality. Jonas Basanavicius interests embraced a wide spectrum of academic fields, and his doctor's achievements were relevant for people in medical profession. Dr. Jonas Basanavicius is well known for his contribution to medicine. He is considered the founder of sanitation science in Bulgaria, the promoter of public health, the originator of Lithuanian medical terminology, the author of scientific and educational works "Materials on Sanitation Ethnography in Bulgaria. Lomskijat District (1880-1889)" ("Materiali za sanitarnata etnografija na Bulgarija. Lomskijat okrug (1880-1889)") published in 1891, "Materials for Our National Medicine" ("Medega mūsu tautiskai vaistininkystai") published in 1898, and articles.

Bulgaria↗
PubMed2003

Forward to Johannesburg and hydro-solidarity.

The provision of clean drinking water and adequate sanitation is one of the simplest and most effective steps to eradicating poverty. In South Africa a major programme is underway which will ensure all South Africans have a clean water supply within six years, and access to acceptable sanitation within ten years. Total basin management, transcending national boundaries, is essential to ensure the use of water for the common good of all. The term "hydro-solidarity" illustrates water as a catalyst for co-operation.

Environment↗
PubMed2003

Towards a typology of water-related conflicts in the urban environment.

Rapid urban population growth is occurring, particularly in developing countries, and has led to problems of providing adequate water supply and sanitation. Two dominant policy recommendations have been put forward--raise fees to existing users or increase the role of the private sector in the provision of water and sanitation services. A number of civil disturbances and riots have occurred in response to such proposals. More pragmatic policy initiatives are required to prevent and solve water-related conflicts, as well as new institutional structures to better handle competing and conflicting water demands.

Cities↗
PubMed2004

Some thoughts about future perspectives of water and wastewater management.

The ideals of sustainability have a longer history than is sometimes realised, as they can be traced back to the insights of Von Carlowitz in 1713. However in the intervening centuries early successes in sanitation based on the "flushing sewer" led engineers to focus too much on sewerage-based solutions that are increasingly uneconomic and unequal to the challenges arising from population growth and urbanisation. The future strategy for globally sustainable sanitation will surely involve source separation and recycling and reuse: these are the technologies that environmental scientists and engineers should now be addressing.

Conservation of Natural Resources↗
PubMed2004

Environmental engineering education for developing countries: framework for the future.

This paper presents the existing philosophy, approach, criteria and delivery of environmental engineering education (E3) for developing countries. In general, environmental engineering is being taught in almost all major universities in developing countries, mostly under civil engineering degree programmes. There is an urgent need to address specific inputs that are particularly important for developing countries with respect to the reality of urbanisation and industrialisation. The main component of E3 in the near future will remain on basic sanitation in most developing countries, with special emphasis on the consumer-demand approach. In order to substantially overcome environmental problems in developing countries, E3 should include integrated urban water management, sustainable sanitation, appropriate technology, cleaner production, wastewater minimisation and financial framework.

Cities↗
PubMed1950

Recent trends in public health.

Environmental sanitation is experiencing a reawakening with concerted drives at control of water and atmospheric pollution, mosquito and rodent control, and improvement in restaurant sanitation. Communicable disease control efforts are being intensified. With prolongation of life, chronic diseases are assuming increasing importance as public health problems. Maintenance of standards of hospitals and provision for more adequate hospital facilities are also receiving attention. Mental health and chronic alcoholism are being considered as a public health problem. With all these new trends emphasizing prevention of disease, increasing teamwork between physicians in private practice and in public health practice is being manifested. Preventive medicine and public health are now a recognized specialty in medicine.

Communicable Disease Control↗
PubMed2005

Policy principles and implementation guidelines for private sector participation in the water sector--a step towards better results.

To achieve the Millennium Development Goals, all partners (public, private, NGOs) must be engaged for improving and expanding the water supply and sanitation services. Yet, high transaction costs, unclear role allocation and lack of trust and commitment put Private Sector Participation (PSP) at risk. The initiative "Policy Principles and Implementation Guidelines for Private Sector Participation in Sustainable Water Supply and Sanitation" contributes to equitable, effective, ecological and efficient PSP projects. Based on a multi stakeholder process, the Policy Principles are offering an open and transparent framework for the negotiation of valid, widely accepted and action-oriented solutions, while the Implementation Guidelines focus on success factors for building partnerships on the operational level.

Ecology↗
PubMed2005

The role of membrane technology in sustainable decentralized wastewater systems.

Decentralized wastewater treatment has the potential to provide sanitation that meets criteria for sustainable urban water management in a manner that is less resource intensive and more cost effective than centralized approaches. It can facilitate water reuse and nutrient recovery and can potentially reduce the ecological risks of wastewater system failure and the community health risk in a wastewater reuse scheme. This paper examines the potential role of membrane technology in sustainable decentralized sanitation. It is argued that the combination of membrane technology within decentralized systems can satisfy many of the criteria for sustainable urban water management. In particular, the role of membranes as a dependable barrier in the wastewater treatment process can increase system reliability as well as lowering the latent risks due to wastewater reuse. The modular nature of membranes will allow plant size to range from single dwellings, through clusters to suburb size. It is concluded that realization of the potential for membrane-based technologies in decentralized wastewater treatment will require some progress both technically and institutionally. The areas where advances are necessary are outlined.

Conservation of Natural Resources↗