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PubMed1994

On the relationship between differential outcomes and differential sample responding in matching-to-sample.

Four experiments examined control over choice by differential sample responding in matching-to-sample with differential outcomes. In Experiment 1, pigeons initially learned to match with food versus no-food outcomes. Their performances later transferred to other samples to which responding versus not responding had been explicitly reinforced with a single outcome (food). In Experiment 2, pigeons initially learned to produce the comparisons by pecking one sample but not the other. Transfer was then observed to new samples associated with food versus no food (and thus often vs. seldomly pecked). Experiments 3 and 4 showed that transfer of matching required differential behavior to each sample set and did not depend on explicit conditioning of that behavior prior to acquisition. Together, these results show that differential sample behaviour provides a redundant cue for choice in differential outcome matching-to-sample.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Manipulating visual informational constraints during practice enhances the acquisition of catching skill in children.

Previous motor learning studies examining the effects of practicing to catch one-handed under varying informational constraints on subsequent skill acquisition are equivocal, perhaps due to the use of relatively inexperienced adult participants. Ecological theory predicts that directing the learner's search for information in the perceptual-motor workspace can enhance skill acquisition. This study manipulated visual informational constraints on novice children (ages 9-10 years) learning to catch one-handed. A crossover transfer design was implemented in which one group acted as controls while two other groups practiced either without visual restrictions before transferring to full vision, or vice versa. The data indicated that learners forced to seek additional information sources under restricted viewing conditions demonstrated a greater positive, accumulative residual effect on acquiring a catching skill. The findings contradict current work on the specificity of practice hypothesis and suggest that varying visual informational constraints to encourage exploratory practice may represent a significant pedagogical approach to motor learning in sport.

Child↗
PubMed1975

Transfer of the "same-different' differentiation task in dogs.

Four dogs, previously trained to perform on the "same-different" differentiation with tones transfered readily to the same task with new stimuli of the same (auditory) modality. The data are interpreted as an support for the "matching" hypothesis and a disproof of the notion of "conditioned switching".

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Can rats acquire an olfactory learning set?

Experimental rats were trained on multiple 2-odor discrimination tasks, whereas controls were given repeated sessions on Task 1 and then were tested on a novel 2-odor task. Experimental rats showed strong positive transfer across problems and approached errorless or near-errorless learning. Control rats maintained near-perfect performance on Task 1 but performed at chance on initial trials when tested with novel odors. Thus, the near-errorless terminal performance of experimental rats was a function their having been trained on multiple problems and was not simply the result of eliminating "disruptive response tendencies" (I. C. Reid & R. G. M. Morris, 1992). Results support the view that when rats are trained on a series of 2-odor discrimination tasks, they acquire a strategy or rule that allows them to solve new problems with few or no errors.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Evaluation of training in patient handling and moving skills among hospital and home care personnel.

The aim of the study was to evaluate the training programme in patient handling and moving skills according to the Stockholm Training Concept. The evaluation focused on work technique, musculoskeletal problems, job strain and the experience of the person being transferred. The training programme consisted of two models of learning: traditional groups and quality circles. Fifty-one people employed at geriatric hospitals and in primary care, participated in the training programme. For the evaluation, the participants were video-recorded in one standardized transfer situation: moving the patient from bed to wheelchair, before and after the training. The participants' work technique during the patient transfer was assessed using seven items. A questionnaire covering individual factors, physical exertion, job strain, and musculoskeletal problems, was filled in by the participants before training and also six months after. The results showed improvements in six of the seven work technique items, directly after training. A decrease in the participants' physical exertion during transfers of patients from 'bed to chair' was shown six months after completion of the training programme. There was no significant decrease in the participants' musculoskeletal problems and job strain after training. Ninety-eight per cent of the participants were positive about having participated in the training. Training in patient handling and moving skills led to improved work technique. The participants improved their transfer technique and experienced less discomfort during the transfer, and patients experienced greater comfort and safety when being transferred.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Imitation: definitions, evidence, and mechanisms.

Imitation can be defined as the copying of behavior. To a biologist, interest in imitation is focused on its adaptive value for the survival of the organism, but to a psychologist, the mechanisms responsible for imitation are the most interesting. For psychologists, the most important cases of imitation are those that involve demonstrated behavior that the imitator cannot see when it performs the behavior (e.g., scratching one's head). Such examples of imitation are sometimes referred to as opaque imitation because they are difficult to account for without positing cognitive mechanisms, such as perspective taking, that most animals have not been acknowledged to have. The present review first identifies various forms of social influence and social learning that do not qualify as opaque imitation, including species-typical mechanisms (e.g., mimicry and contagion), motivational mechanisms (e.g., social facilitation, incentive motivation, transfer of fear), attentional mechanisms (e.g., local enhancement, stimulus enhancement), imprinting, following, observational conditioning, and learning how the environment works (affordance learning). It then presents evidence for different forms of opaque imitation in animals, and identifies characteristics of human imitation that have been proposed to distinguish it from animal imitation. Finally, it examines the role played in opaque imitation by demonstrator reinforcement and observer motivation. Although accounts of imitation have been proposed that vary in their level of analysis from neural to cognitive, at present no theory of imitation appears to be adequate to account for the varied results that have been found.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2005

Influence of task complexity on mechanical efficiency and propulsion technique during learning of hand rim wheelchair propulsion.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the consequence of task complexity on gross mechanical efficiency and propulsion technique during the learning process of hand rim wheelchair propulsion. METHODS: Three groups of unimpaired subjects (N=10 each) received a 3-week wheelchair practice period (3 week(-1), nine practice trials) with different levels of complexity, i.e. propelling a stationary wheelchair ergometer, wheelchair propulsion on a motor-driven treadmill or at a circular wheelchair track. During practice trials 1 and 9, gross mechanical efficiency and propulsion technique variables (work per cycle, cycle frequency, push and cycle time, effective force) were measured. RESULTS: Using multi-level regression analysis, no differences in the development over time in mechanical efficiency and propulsion technique could be discerned between the three conditions of task complexity. Only the percentage push time during the cycle decreased significantly more in the group that practiced on the ergometer compared to the treadmill-practice group. For all three groups a change over time was shown for cycle frequency, push time and cycle time. DISCUSSION: Under the current experimental conditions, task complexity does not have an influence on gross mechanical efficiency and propulsion technique during the learning process of wheelchair propulsion. The 3-week practice period had a favorable practice effect on timing regardless of the task complexity.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMedDate not supplied

An exploratory investigation into the usability and usefulness of training people with learning disabilities in a virtual environment.

PURPOSE: Two studies sought to answer the following questions. Are people with learning disabilities capable of using a virtual environment? Are they motivated to learn using this training method? Do they show any benefit from using a virtual environment? Does any benefit transfer to improved real world performance? METHOD: In the first study, 30 students with learning disabilities were sequentially allocated to an active or a passive experimental group. Active participants explored a virtual bungalow searching for a toy car. Passive participants watched the exploration undertaken by the preceding active participant and searched for the toy car. All participants then performed spatial and object recognition tests of their knowledge of the virtual environment. In the second study, the errors of 45 participants on a real steadiness tester task were noted before they were randomly allocated to three groups-a real training group, a virtual training group and a no training group. After training, the participants performed a second test trial on the real steadiness tester. RESULTS: The students were capable of using a virtual environment and were motivated to use this training method. Active exploration of a virtual environment was found to enhance their memory of the spatial layout of the bungalow but not their memory of the virtual objects. In the second study, virtual training was found to transfer to real task performance. CONCLUSIONS: These two laboratory-based studies provide answers to four important questions concerning virtual training of people with learning disabilities. Hopefully, the findings will encourage this training aid to be used more widely.

Achievement↗
PubMed1982

Cognitive learning in the health sciences: a case for self-instruction.

The health professions are faced today as never before with the need to find more effective ways of acquiring a growing volume of biomedical knowledge and of addressing the urgent concerns about learning processes--namely, the continued dependence on outmoded techniques of cognitive transfer. The author believes that greater incentives should be given for faculty and students to experiment with innovative approaches to cognitive learning while recognizing the need for increased emphasis on problem-solving skills in medical care. Proven self-learning techniques demand greater attention in curriculum and course design efforts. Finally, the author states that the process of educational planning must be viewed as continuous, dynamic, and never-ending if it is to best serve the needs of individual students, educational institutions, and the society to which both are ultimately accountable and committed to serve.

Computer-Assisted Instruction↗
PubMed1977

Transfer of associative-clustering tendencies in borderline mentally retarded and nonretarded adolescents.

Twenty-four sixth graders, 24 seventh graders, and 24 special-education students with MAs roughly equivalent to the sixth graders were randomly assigned to the cells of a 3 (grade level) X 2 (list novelty) X 2 (list organization) factorial design. In the list-novelty condition, subjects were immediately transferred to either a same-categories or a new-categories list on the third and fourth trials. In the list-organization condition, subjects received the lists on the first two trials in either a random or blocked format. For all subjects, the last two trials were presented randomly and contained new words. The results of the analyses revealed that there was significant negative transfer over trial blocks for the same-categories transfer condition. In addition, the new-categories group clustered significantly more on the second than the first trial block. There was no significant interaction between subject and treatment factors, suggesting that the processes involved in recall were similar for nonretarded and borderline retarded subjects.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1979

Habituation and transfer during sleep in cats.

In order to test the concept of "sleep learning", cats were exposed to habituation treatment of auditory stimuli during different stages of the sleep-waking cycle. While it was possible to demonstrate that habituation to an auditory stimulus can take place in paradoxical sleep (PS) and slow-wave sleep (SWS) as well as during periods of wakefulness, it was not always possible to demonstrate a transfer of habituation from the training period to other periods. A complete transfer of habituation occurred between the two sleep periods (PS and SWS); a partial transfer of habituation occurred between the waking period and both of the two sleep stages (PS and SWS), but only a minimal transfer of habituation was found between any one of the sleep stages and the waking period. When the cats were able to transfer the habituation, they also were able to discriminate between the habituating tone and a novel tone. The findings that only minimal transfer of habituation could occur between each of the sleep stages and the waking period do not lend support to the concept of "sleep learning".

Animals↗
PubMed2002

MK-801 induced amnesia for the elevated plus-maze in mice.

MK-801, a non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonist, has been shown to have amnesic properties in animal models. The purpose of the present study was to examine potential amnesic effects of MK-801 in mice using the modified elevated plus-maze paradigm. An animal was placed on the distal end of an open arm, and the transfer latency, i.e. the time in which it moves to the enclosed arm, was measured. Four different experimental schedules (i.e. the combination of the treatment and the testing) were used: MK-801 (0.075, 0.15, 0.25 and 0.4 mg/kg or saline) were given (a) 30 min before the acquisition session, (b) immediately after the acquisition session, (c) 60 min after the acquisition session, and (d) 30 min before the retention session. The retention session always followed 24 h after the acquisition session. Analysis of data showed a significant shortening of the transfer latency in saline-treated animals during the retention session. Further, MK-801 (at the dose range of 0.15--0.4 mg/kg) administered before and immediately after the acquisition session as well as before the retention session prolonged the transfer latency during the retention session. In fact, transfer latencies in MK-801 treated mice did not differ from those measured during the acquisition session. Thus, prolongation of the transfer latency in MK-801-treated mice indicates deficits in 'memorization' processes. On the contrary, MK-801 given 60 min after the acquisition session failed to increase the transfer latency, which suggests that the memory trace was sufficiently consolidated at this time. Based on the present results, the glutamatergic NMDA receptor mechanisms play an important role in a spatial orientation of mice placed on the elevated plus-maze.

Amnesia↗
PubMed1998

Property instantiation in conceptual combination.

In four experiments, I examined how a property in one concept is transferred to a second concept during conceptual combination. The results suggest that people instantiate properties: that is, they use a specific representation of a property in the modifier concept to construct a new version of that property that is specific to the combination. If people are instantiating properties, then the modifier property should match its counterpart in the combination to the extent that the modifier and head noun are similar. This observation leads to a variety of predictions (supported by the experiments) about interpretations of similar and dissimilar combinations and about plausibility, preference, and similarity judgments associated with such interpretations. The results argue against an alternative view of transfer that posits that, in general, abstract representations of properties are copied from one concept to another. In this paper, I describe various processing accounts of instantiation and discuss the implications of the instantiation view for theories of metaphor, conceptual combination, and induction.

Adult↗