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PubMed1997

Prior non-spatial pretraining eliminates sensorimotor disturbances and impairments in water maze learning caused by diazepam.

Diazepam has been reported to impair spatial learning in the water maze. This experiment reexamined this topic using control groups that had first been non-spatially pretrained to familiarize them with the general behavioral strategies required in the water maze task. Naive rats given diazepam (0.5, 3.0, 6.0 mg/kg, IP) displayed dose-related maze acquisition impairments and sensorimotor disturbances (swimming in the periphery of the pool, deflecting off or swimming over the hidden platform, jumping off the platform when placed there after a trial, ataxia on a narrow wooden beam). The sensorimotor disturbances interfered with the acquisition of information about the spatial location of the platform, occurred in the absence of impairments in a subsequent visible platform task or swim speed, and correlated strongly with measures of acquisition. In contrast, the non-spatially pretrained groups did not exhibit sensorimotor disturbances in the water maze and acquired the maze task as rapidly under diazepam as control rats. The non-spatially pretrained groups continued to display diazepam-induced sensorimotor disturbances (ataxia) in a novel beam walking task. CGS8216 (10.0 or 20.0 mg/kg), a benzodiazepine receptor antagonist, attenuated the effect of 3.0 or 6.0 mg/kg diazepam in naive rats, suggesting that the effects of diazepam were mediated by benzodiazepine receptors. Occupancy of benzodiazepine receptors by diazepam does not prevent robust spatial learning in the water maze.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Voluntary resistance exercise improves blood hemoglobin concentration in severely iron-deficient rats.

To evaluate the effects of long-term voluntary resistance exercise (climbing) compared with aerobic exercise (swimming) on iron status in severely (4 mg Fe/kg diet) and mildly (18-29 mg Fe/kg diet) iron-deficient rats, we trained male Wistar rats for 8 wk to climb a wire-mesh tower (phi20 cm x 200 cm, CLIMB) and to swim in a plastic pool (phi50 cm x 50 cm, SWIM). These rats were compared with sedentary (SED) rats. After the experimental period, blood hemoglobin level, plasma iron concentration, and transferrin saturation were significantly lower in the 4 mg Fe/kg diet rats than in the 18, 29, and 40 mg Fe/kg diet rats. In 4 mg Fe/kg diet rats, the hemoglobin level was significantly higher in the CLIMB group than in the SED and SWIM groups. On the other hand, neither exercise affected iron status in mildly iron-deficient rats. Bone marrow delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase activity was significantly higher in the CLIMB group than in the SWIM and SED groups. These results suggest that long-term resistance exercise is more effective than aerobic exercise in improving blood hemoglobin concentration in severely iron-deficient rats, probably because of an increase in heme biosynthesis. Resistance exercise may be a useful therapy for iron-deficient anemia.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Influence of free residual chlorine on cultured human epidermal keratinocytes from normal skin and hypertrophic scars.

In Japan, public health regulations state that the water in rinsing pools used before swimming should contain 50-100 mg/l of chlorine. We examined the influence of chlorination at high concentrations in rinsing pools on the skin using cultured human epidermal keratinocytes from normal skin and hypertrophic scars. Chlorination of cell culture for 15 min with 200 mg/l of free residual chlorine proved cytotoxic to both types of keratinocytes as did 100 mg/l of free residual chlorine for 1 or 3 consecutive days. Keratinocytes from hypertrophic scars, when cultivated in 100 mg/l of free residual chlorine, were more vulnerable to chlorine than those from normal skin. Cell characteristics of cultured keratinocytes from hypertrophic scars may be somewhat different from those of normal skin. The phenomena observed in this experimental model of the skin suggest that people exposed to chlorine in rinsing pools at concentrations in excess of 200 mg/l for about 15 min before swimming are at risk of developing cutaneous disorders, especially at sites of injury, e.g. scars.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Increase of AMPA receptor glutamate receptor 1 subunit and B-cell receptor-associated protein 31 gene expression in hippocampus of fatigued mice.

Central fatigue is an indispensable biosignal for maintaining life, but the neuronal and molecular mechanisms involved remain unclear. In this study, we searched for genes differentially expressed in the hippocampus of fatigued mice to elucidate the mechanisms underlying fatigue. Mice were forced to swim in an adjustable-current water pool, and the maximum swimming time (endurance) until fatigue was measured thrice. Fatigued and nonfatigued mice with equal swimming capacity and body weight were compared. We found that the genes of GluR1 and B-cell receptor-associated protein 31 (Bap31), which acts as a transport molecule in the secretory pathway or as a mediator of apoptosis, were upregulated in the hippocampus of fatigued mice, and increases of GluR1 and Bap31 were confirmed by Northern blotting and real-time PCR. No change of gene expression of AMPA receptor subunits other than GluR1 was observed. These results suggest that a compositional change of AMPA receptor (increase of GluR1) and upregulation of the Bap31 gene may be implicated in fatigue in mice.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Skin irritation in users of brominated pools.

This study investigated adverse skin and eye effects in swimmers using pools with three different disinfection systems (chlorine, chlorine/ozone and bromine/ozone) and monitored water quality parameters that may be related to adverse health effects. A cross-sectional study of 770 children swimming in three school pools was carried out over a 4 week period in November 1994 using a postal questionnaire. Physico-chemical and bacteriological parameters of water quality were monitored on a weekly basis. Responses were obtained for 385 swimmers. Skin rashes with an onset less than 24 h after swimming in the school pool were reported by 4-8% of swimmers. Compared with the bromine/ozone pool, the odds ratio (OR) of having a rash that started less than 24 h after pool use was 1.91 (CI 0.71-5.10) for the chlorine pool and 1.88 (CI 0.61-5.81) for the chlorine/ozone pool. Adjustment for possible confounders made no significant differences to these results. Eye redness, itch or irritation was reported by 23-33% of swimmers and 24% of non-swimmers, and wearing swimming goggles had a protective effect (OR 0.40; CI 0.24, 0.65). Disinfectant levels were more consistently maintained in the pools with automatically controlled systems. The bromine disinfection system was not associated with a greater risk of the development of skin rashes than other disinfection systems, but the numbers were small, and need to be interpreted with caution.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1992

Validity of ratings of perceived exertion as an index of exercise intensity in swimming training.

The validity of ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), proposed by Borg (1962), as an index of exercise intensity in swimming training was discussed based on the following four experiments. Experiment I: VO2 and heart rate (HR) were measured and RPE was asked in ten female and seven male physical education students with different levels of swimming skill performing submaximal and maximal work in tethered swimming. The increases in HR and RPE with increase in %VO2max were fitted well by straight lines with high correlation coefficients of r = 0.957-0.999 and r = 0.893-0.988, respectively. RPE was increased in a linear fashion with increase in HR except for a few subjects. The correlation coefficients for linear regression for individuals were 0.862-0.987. Experiment II: Swimming velocity and HR were measured in four groups with different levels of swimming skill. The breast stroke in a 50-m pool for 5 min at three RPE ratings, i.e., very light (RPE 9), somewhat hard (RPE 13) and very hard (RPE 17) was requested of these groups. In good skilled well trained college swimmers, %HRmax was fairly higher than the RPE at the RPE 9 and RPE 13 levels but coincided with the RPE at the RPE 17 level. In skilled trained physical education students, the HR increased with a corresponding increase in RPE. But in the group with low or lower levels of swimming skill, the HR kept about the same values in spite of the increase in RPE. Experiment III: Two male and six female low skilled physical education students took the swimming training in the swimming pool for 2.0-2.5 hours a day, 6 days a week, for 2 weeks. The students also received the swimming training in the sea which lasted for 2 hours each in the morning and in the afternoon for 6 days. The same RPE test, as mentioned in Experiment II, was done before, during and after swimming training. Mean swimming velocity during and after training was slightly higher than that before training at the RPE 9 and RPE 13 levels, and was much higher at the RPE 17 level. Before training, the HR was fairly higher than the RPE at the RPE 9 and RPE 13 level. But during and after training, the HR was much closer to the RPE at the RPE 9 and RPE 13 levels. Experiment IV: Two male and three female lower skilled middle-aged swimmers performed the same RPE test as mentioned in Experiment II.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Argyrophilic dark neurons distribute with a different pattern in the brain after over hours treadmill running and swimming in the rat.

Argyrophil III staining is a useful method for the detection of dark neurons (DNs) that would reflect an early cytopathic feature. We examined the appearance of DNs following the stressful exercises (0.5-3 h swimming in a pool of 25-45 cm depth; 1-2 h running on a treadmill at the speed of 600-1200 cm/min) in the rat. After the swimming, DNs were detected in the hippocampus (CA1-2 pyramidal cell layer, oriens layer), somatosensory cortex, entorhinal cortex, hypothalamus, habenular nucleus, amygdaloid nucleus, striatum, accumbens and sometimes in lateral septal nucleus. After the running, DNs appeared in the visual cortex, deepest layer of area 17 and 18a, motor cortex, red nucleus, somatosensory cortex, entorhinal cortex, and hippocampus (dentate gyrus). Thus, the DNs appeared mainly in the limbic structure after the swimming, and in the limbic structure, motor-related regions and visual cortex after the running. Further, the number of the DNs and the extent of area where they distributed were dependent on the strength and the duration of the exercises. In hematoxylin-eosin (H-E) staining, we often detected pycnotic cells (dark stained soma) in CA1 hippocampus where argyrophil positive cells were most abundant. The picnotic cells were not so common in other areas. Data suggest that DNs are induced by stressful exercises. They might reflect an early cell injury following stress and overexcitation.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Further evidence for conditioned taste aversion induced by forced swimming.

A series of experiments with rats reported that aversion to a taste solution can be established by forced swimming in a water pool. Experiment 1 demonstrated that correlation of taste and swimming is a critical factor for this phenomenon, indicating associative (i.e., Pavlovian) nature of this learning. Experiment 2 showed that this learning obeys the Pavlovian law of strength, by displaying a positive relationship between the duration of water immersion in training and the taste aversion observed in subsequent testing. Experiment 3 revealed that swimming rather than being wet is the critical agent, because a water shower did not endow rats with taste aversion. Experiment 4 found that taste aversion was a positive function of water level of the pools in training (0, 12 or 32 cm). These results, taken together, suggest that energy expenditure caused by physical exercise might be involved in the development of taste aversion.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2005

Occupational fitness standards for beach lifeguards. Phase 1: the physiological demands of beach lifeguarding.

BACKGROUND: Although similar standards exist internationally to select beach lifeguards (BLGs), these are generally not based on a task analysis. To reduce the likelihood of drowning, a BLG should reach a casualty within 3.5 min (210 s). AIM: To quantify the physical demands of the most critical generic tasks undertaken by BLGs. METHODS: A survey of 91 BLGs identified sea swimming while towing a casualty, board paddling with a casualty, and casualty handling as the most demanding activities. Performance during beach running (200 m), swimming in the sea (200 m), board paddling in the sea (400 m), swimming in a pool (200 m freestyle and 25 m underwater with 25 m return) and simulated casualty handling were measured. RESULTS: The median area at sea patrolled by paddling and swimming was 400 m. The mean 200-m sea swim time was 3.1 min or 188 s (SD = 46 s) and 95% of the BLGs were able to swim 200 m in 3.5 min (n = 22). The mean time to paddle 400 m was 3.8 min or 226 s (SD = 35 s) and 30% of the BLGs were able to paddle 400 m in 3.5 min (n = 23). The 5th percentile paddling speed was 1.38 m/s, therefore, 95% of the BLGs tested should be able to paddle 289 m in 3.5 min. CONCLUSIONS: If only a rescue board is available, the area out to sea patrolled by a lifeguard should be reduced from 400 m to 300 m.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Kinematic analysis of the hind limb during swimming and walking in healthy dogs and dogs with surgically corrected cranial cruciate ligament rupture.

OBJECTIVE: To determine hip, stifle, and tarsal joint ranges of motion (ROM) and angular velocities during swimming and walking in healthy dogs and dogs with surgically corrected cranial cruciate ligament (CCL) rupture. DESIGN: Prospective clinical study. ANIMALS: 13 healthy dogs and 7 dogs with CCL rupture. PROCEDURE: Dogs with CCL rupture were enrolled in a postoperative aquatic rehabilitation program and evaluated 21 to 35 days after surgery. Dogs were filmed while swimming in a pool and while walking at a fast (1.3 m/s) or slow (0.9 m/s) pace on a treadmill. Maximal angles of extension and flexion, ROM, and angular velocities were calculated. RESULTS: In healthy dogs, swimming resulted in a significantly greater ROM in the hip joint than did walking, but in dogs with CCL rupture, ROM of the hip joint did not vary with swimming versus walking. For dogs in both groups, swimming resulted in significantly greater ROM of the stifle and tarsal joints than did walking, primarily because of greater joint flexion. Stifle joint ROM was significantly lower in dogs with CCL rupture than in healthy dogs, regardless of whether dogs were swimming or walking. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggested that following surgical management of a ruptured CCL in dogs, swimming resulted in greater ROM of the stifle and tarsal joints than did walking. This suggests that if ROM is a factor in the rate or extent of return to function in these dogs, then aquatic rehabilitation would likely result in a better overall outcome than walking alone.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Rest and activity states in a gray whale.

The behaviour of a female gray whale (Eschrichtius robustus) that had been rescued 14 months previously was recorded continuously on a video-recorder for 9 days at 'Sea World' in San Diego. On average, during the first six recording days, active wakefulness accounted for 37.9 +/- 1.7% of each 24 h; transitional stage for 17.4 +/- 1.4% and rest for 41.2 +/- 1.7%. In the rest stage the whale was lying on the bottom of the pool (13.2 +/- 1.7%) or hanging on the surface (28. 0 +/- 1.7%). During the rest stage, it was immobile most of the time and moved only for respiration. In the rest stage both eyes could be open, one eye could be open while the other was closed or, more rarely, both eyes could be closed. Characteristic jerks of the head, neck and sometimes of the whole body were observed in the whale during the rest stage. Most jerks were single and only 10% of all jerks were serial (occurring within 10 s of a prior jerk). Eyelid movements accompanied 40% of jerks. In two episodes, intense jerks followed each other continuously for 3 and 4 s and were accompanied by eyelid movements. These jerks resembled the twitches characteristic of paradoxical sleep in terrestrial mammals. During these episodes the whale was falling slowly onto its side and subsequently started to swim in the pool.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

Development of place navigation in rats from weaning to puberty.

Young hooded rats were trained to escape onto a hidden platform after swimming in a pool of opaque water. Subjects 21, 28, 35, 42, and 64 days of age on the first training day were given 28 trials on 5 consecutive days. Half of the rats were required to localize the platform in relation to external room cues only ("place only" condition) and the other half were helped by the presence of a visible cue on the platform ("cue + place" condition). A deficiency in place navigation was observed in the 21- and 28-day groups; they showed slow escape and took circuitous routes more often than older rats. This deficiency was related to a poor spatial bias toward the training position when the subjects were allowed to swim for 30 s in the absence of the platform, at the end of the 28-trial training period (probe trial). The 35-day group showed adult-like learning ability in both training conditions, but failed to show searching behavior during the probe trial after having been trained in the presence of the proximal cue. Only rats older than 40 days showed typical adult behavior such as swimming directly toward the platform from any starting position and localized searching around the absent platform's position during the probe trial, no matter what the training conditions were. These results suggest that central nervous system structures responsible for place learning in the rat are functional from around 32 days of age, but fail to trigger searching behavior following cued training before the sixth week.

Aging↗
PubMed1993

Spatial learning during the course of autoimmune disease in MRL mice.

The present study examines whether autoimmune MRL-lpr mice develop impairments in learning and memory that correlate with changing severity of lupus-like disease. MRL-lpr mice (n = 20) were tested in the Morris water-maze at 12, 14, 16 and 18 weeks of age. Age-matched controls were congenic MRL +/+ mice (n = 20) that develop the disease much later. Immune status was assessed by the presence of anti-nuclear antibodies (ANA), brain-reactive antibodies, proteinuria, and haematocrit. Learning rates and memory retention did not differ between the substrains, and did not correlate or deteriorate with advancing age and autoimmunity. However, the baseline performance level in autoimmune MRL-lpr mice was shifted, as evidenced by a consistently longer task-solving latencies. Thigmotaxic swimming (along the pool wall) was pronounced in the MRL-lpr group, and was associated with the observed difference in performance. The present study does not support the notion that learning/memory abilities of autoimmune MRL-lpr mice are impaired per se, but may support the hypothesis that the rapid progress of humoral autoimmunity affects the emotionality of lupus-prone mice.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Maternal methyl-containing dietary supplementation alters the ability to learn in adult rats in swimming Morris test].

Maternal choline diet influences the spatial learning processes. In this work, the learning ability of adult progeny of mothers who had received methyl diet enriched with choline and betain during pregnancy and lactation was studied in Morris test. The introduction of the diet to pregnant rats resulted in an increase in the time of search for invisible platform and time of swimming near the pool walls in offsprings, which meant a worsening of their learning ability. It was also found that change in platform searching strategy was not associated with an increase in anxiety of male rats. Possible involvement of maternal methyl diet in the change of expression of genes which control development of the nervous system is discussed.

Animals↗
PubMed1984

[The effect of swimming on the nasal passages and on tube function in children].

In two studies the authors want to confirm experimentally what is assumed in every day ENT-practice: otitis and sinusitis are not infrequent complications of swimming. The first study, involving 60 children with chronic non-specific lung diseases shows that swimming in a sea water pool increases the nasal airway resistance during two days. In the second study, performed in 32 normal children swimming in a chlorous pool, a negative relationship is found between the number of days after the swimming and the increased nasal airway resistance. Probably other factors also play a part in this phenomenon. Due to the too small number of children showing an otitis media with effusion, the influence of swimming on the function of the Eustachian tube could not be determined.

Acoustic Impedance Tests↗
PubMed2004

Otomycoses of candidal origin in eastern Slovakia.

Mycological analysis of swabs and scraping samples from the external ear canals of 40 patients with clinically diagnosed otomycosis (10 neonates, 30 adults) revealed the presence of fungi as etiological agents. They were investigated microscopically using 20 % potassium hydroxide, and by cultivation on Sabouraud's glucose agar. The Candida species were identified using the germ-tube test, micromorphology observations of colonies on rice agar, and particularly by the commercial kit AUXAcolor. The following Candida species were identified in the aural material examined: C. albicans (n = 21; 52.5 %), C. parapsilosis (11; 27.5), C. tropicalis (3; 7.5), C. krusei (3; 7.5), C. guilliermondii (2; 5.0). The above yeasts were present in samples together with Staphylococcus epidermidis (31), S. aureus (16), alpha-hemolytic streptococci (14), Neisseria spp. (14), Proteus mirabilis (3), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (3), Escherichia coli (1) and Haemophilus influenzae (1). The most frequent predisposing factors for otomycosis were swimming in public pools and/or bath, spa and diabetes mellitus.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Involvement of cholinergic systems in the deficit of place learning in Morris water maze task induced by baclofen in rats.

Effects of oxotremorine on the deficit of place learning in the Morris water maze task induced by baclofen and scopolamine were examined to determine the involvement of brain cholinergic systems in the deficit of learning induced by baclofen. Rats were given 4 training trials per day with the submerged platform at a fixed location in the maze for 4 days. On day 4, rats were required to swim in the pool without the platform after the 4th training trial (probe test). Baclofen as well as scopolamine dose-dependently increased the escape latency in the training trials. In the probe test, baclofen as well as scopolamine dose-dependently reduced the duration in the quadrant where the platform had been originally located. Increased latency in the training trials and reduced duration in the probe test induced by scopolamine were dose-dependently attenuated by oxotremorine. Increased latency and reduced duration in the baclofen-treated rats were improved by oxotremorine as well as 2-hydroxysaclofen. Baclofen but not scopolamine induced motor incoordination in the rotarod test. Oxotremorine failed to improve motor incoordination induced by baclofen. These results suggest that cholinergic systems may be involved in the deficit of place learning induced by baclofen, and that the ameliorative effects of oxotremorine may not be due to improvement of motor incoordination.

Animals↗