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PubMed1996

Effects of chlorpromazine and diazepam on time estimation behavior and motivation in rats.

The effects of chlorpromazine and diazepam on performance of two operant tasks, one modelling time estimation and the other motivation to work for food reinforcers, were investigated in rats. These same tasks had been used previously in rhesus monkeys to assess the effects of chlorpromazine and diazepam. Rat performance of the time estimation task [temporal response differentiation (TRD)] was nearly identical to that previously described in monkeys. This performance similarity across these two species occurred despite slightly different methodologies. Performance of the motivation task [progressive ratio (PR)] was clearly different between rats and adult monkeys in that rats exhibited lower values on all PR endpoints. Acute administration of chlorpromazine [0.03-5.6 mg/kg, intraperitoneally (IP)] caused decrements in rat TRD and PR performance at doses > or = 1.0 mg/kg. Acute administration of diazepam (0.25-4.0 mg/kg, IP) altered TRD performance only. The effects of chlorpromazine and diazepam in rats were similar to those previously noted in the monkey, indicating the potential utility of rat performance in these operant tasks to predict drug effects in the rhesus monkey.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Strain differences in fear-motivated behavior of rats.

Studies have shown different and sometimes contradictory results in response to anxiolytic drugs. In the present study, the behavioral performance of rat strains, obtained from different breeders, was examined in four animal models of anxiety- or in exploration-related behavior to assess the potential contribution of genetic disposition or breeding factors to aversion-motivated behavior. Male rats: Wistar/Winkelmann, Wistar/Charles River, Wistar/BGVV, Lewis/Charles River, Fischer/Charles River, Brown Norway/Charles River were used in a conflict test in the open field, a free exploratory paradigm, social interaction test, and the holeboard test. The results show that robust behavioral differences in anxiety or exploration exist between different strains of rats and animals of one strain, obtained from different breeders. The differences shown in anxiety-related behavior might explain sometimes contradictory effects following the treatment with anxiolytic or anxiogenic drugs. The results indicate that genetic factors and breeding conditions substantially contribute to anxiety-motivated behaviors in animal models of anxiety. These differences in anxiety-related behavior may also be related to biochemical differences.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

Promoting weight control at the worksite: a pilot program of self-motivation using payroll-based incentives.

Thirty-six individuals participated in a worksite weight-loss program in which the central component was a self-motivation program of biweekly payroll deductions refunded contingent on meeting self-selected weight-loss goals. Half were assigned to early treatment and the remainder to a delayed treatment control group. Nine additional individuals also enrolled at the time of delayed treatment and were included in descriptive analyses of factors associated with weight loss. Results showed low program attrition over 6 months (6%) and mean weight losses (12.3 lb) that are competitive with those obtained in clinical settings. Although not different at baseline, participants in the delayed treatment group lost more than twice as much weight as those in the early treatment condition. This difference was interpreted as either a strong seasonal effect or a critical mass effect related to the proportion of employees at the worksite participating in the program. We conclude that self-motivation programs for health behavior change using the payroll system as an organization framework offer a promising new methodology for promoting healthful behaviors in work settings.

Adult↗
PubMed1985

Spirometric "lung age" estimation for motivating smoking cessation.

Motivation for smoking cessation benefits from physician counseling. To further improve this educational process, spirometry can demonstrate ventilatory impairment to the smoker. In addition to comparing a person's spirometric results with predicted reference values for normal subjects, estimation of "lung age" can be used to demonstrate the effects of cigarette smoking. Equations were developed from reference linear regression equations permitting lung age estimation in terms of ventilatory function. This age can then be compared with the individual's chronological lung age. Normal and abnormal groups determined by a respiratory health questionnaire and pulmonary function testing were used to compare the value of single and combination spirometric tests. The forced expiratory volume at 1 sec proved superior to any other single test or combination for best separation of the two groups and had the lowest standard error for estimated lung age. Both spirometry and estimated lung age calculation may be useful for motivating cessation of cigarette smoking.

Adult↗
PubMed1987

Separation of the motivational and motor consequences of 6-hydroxydopamine lesions of the mesolimbic or nigrostriatal system in rats.

The effects of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) lesions in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) or substantia nigra, pars compacta (SN/pC) on the behaviour of hungry rats were examined in a Columbia obstruction box test. The lesions of dopaminergic neurones in the VTA as well as in the SN/pC decreased the number of crossings of an electric obstruction for food. After the lesion in the VTA the reaction of rats became independent of the level of hunger--the number of their crossings was similar at different levels of hunger. In contrast, no effect of the lesion was found when the animals were trained and tested in the absence of shock. The 6-OHDA lesion in the SN/pC also decreased the number of crossings, but the animals remained sensitive to motivational hunger stimuli: they were still crossing the obstruction in a hunger-dependent manner. Lesions in neither the VTA nor the SN/pC significantly altered the spontaneous food intake and sensitivity to painful electric stimuli. In the Rotarod test only the SN/pC-lesioned rats showed a substantial motor impairment; lesions in the VTA had no effect in that test. The obtained results are discussed in terms of the role of the dopaminergic mesolimbic and nigrostriatal systems in mediation of the motivational arousal and motor performance of an instrumental food response.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

The nucleus accumbens in monkeys (Macaca fascicularis): II. Emotion and motivation.

Changes in incentive and emotion have been demonstrated in monkeys with amygdala lesions and monkeys with cingulate and medial frontal lesions. The nucleus accumbens (NA) receives inputs from the amygdala, hippocampus and anterior cingulate cortex. In order to better understand the role of the NA and anterior cingulate cortex in processing emotional and motivational stimuli, studies were undertaken which compared the emotional and motivational behaviour of monkeys with NA lesions or anterior cingulate lesions with previous studies on amygdala-lesioned monkeys. A food preference task, a food vs. non-food discrimination task, and a approach-avoidance task were used with monkeys which received lesions of the NA or lesion of the anterior cingulate and medial frontal cortex. These tasks had previously been used to examine the emotional response of monkeys with amygdala lesions. In addition, the lesioned monkeys were tested on a frustration tasks and a button press acquisition-extinction task. Unlike amygdala-lesioned monkeys (Aggleton, J.P. and Passingham, R.E., J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol., 96 (1981) 961-977 and 96 (1982) 71-77), the NA-lesioned monkeys maintained normal food preferences, did not show signs of hyperorality in the food vs. non-food task, and performed normally on the approach-avoidance tasks. The NA-lesioned monkeys did, however, show an increase in activity, and violent and aggressive behaviour in response to stress in both the frustration task and the button press extinction task. In addition, the NA-lesioned monkeys performed normally during a button press acquisition task, but extinguished faster on a button press extinction task than the control monkeys. The anterior cingulate-lesioned monkeys were also found to exhibit an increased responsiveness to frustration. Results of the food preference, food vs. non-food discrimination, and approach-avoidance tasks were similar to those obtained with NA lesioned. These studies suggest that lesions of the NA or the anterior cingulate cortex result in substantial changes in emotional behavior, however, these changes do not mimic those found following lesions of the amygdala.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

Psychogenic muscle tension: the significance of motivation and negative affect in perceptual-cognitive task performance.

Nineteen subjects volunteered to represent a stratified recruitment of serious-minded (goal-directed) and playful (impulsive) individuals balanced for gender. They all performed a perceptual-cognitive task under a neutral condition and with the contingency of monetary reward for good performance (counterbalanced order). Integrated electromyographic (IEMG) recordings were made from the biceps and triceps muscles of both upper arms, and from prebaseline, task performance and postbaseline periods. Verbal reports on motivational state during task performance (serious-minded/playful) and hedonic tone were also recorded. Results verified and extended earlier findings that IEMG activity increases over the course of task performance when a task is performed in the serious-minded state and even more so when a negative hedonic tone coincides with this motivational state. The increased IEMG occurred in all 4 recording sites under both incentive contingencies, although it was particularly marked in the right triceps muscle. These findings should be viewed in the light of the fact that both arms were allowed to remain in a passive resting condition during performance periods.

Adult↗
PubMed1989

Cognitive versus motivational significance of the cardiac response to intense auditory stimulation.

This paper reports on an investigation to examine the psychological significance of the heart rate response to intense auditory stimulation--the cardiac defense response (CDR) - by studying its relationship with cognitive tasks related to Lacey's intake/rejection hypothesis (simple reaction time and mental arithmetic) and motivational tasks related to Obrist's cardiosomatic hypothesis (avoidance reaction time and cold pressor). Eight subjects who consistently evoked the CDR pattern (pattern 1) and 8 subjects who consistently did not (pattern 2) underwent the 4 cognitive/motivational tasks balancing the order of task presentation. Results showed that CDR does not bear any relation to mental arithmetic or cold pressor. Significant relationships were found with both simple and avoidance reaction time tasks. During the foreperiod of both tasks, pattern 1 showed a greater initial acceleration followed by a greater final deceleration. In addition, in the avoidance reaction time task pattern 1 showed a greater acceleration after initial greater deceleration during the period prior to the expected shock. It is concluded that CDR is sequentially related to both cognitive processes of input intake (Lacey's hypothesis) and motivational processes of active coping (Obrist's hypothesis).

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Increased food intake by neuropeptide Y is due to an increased motivation to eat.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY), administered intracerebroventricularly, is a potent orexigenic agent. To determine if NPY-induced eating represented an increase in motivation to eat (e.g., hunger) rather than pathological or stimulus-bound eating, we determined its effect on eating in three paradigms, including lever press, appetitive passive avoidance and quinine-adulterated milk. NPY-injected mice consumed more milk when required to work for it in a lever press apparatus and tolerated shock to the tongue for drinking milk. Increasing the dose of NPY also allowed mice to overcome a taste aversion for quinine-adulterated milk. Overall, these studies support the hypothesis that NPY causes a specific increase in the motivation to eat, rather than nonspecific or stimulus-bound behavior.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Barriers and motivators to prenatal care among low-income women.

Substantial evidence exists which links prenatal care to improved birth outcomes. However, low-income and nonwhite women in the United States, who are at greatest risk for poor birth outcomes, continue to receive the poorest prenatal care. The purpose of this study was to identify and compare barriers and motivators to prenatal care among women who lived in low-income census tracts. The stratified sample included recently delivered white, black and American Indian women who received adequate, intermediate, and inadequate prenatal care. Interviews were conducted which focused primarily on the women's perceptions of problems in obtaining prenatal care and getting to appointments. Results indicated that women with inadequate care identified a greater number of barriers and perceived them as more severe. Psychosocial, structural, and socio-demographic factors were the major barriers, while the mother's beliefs and support from others were important motivators. The predictive power of selected barrier variables was examined by a regression analysis. These variables accounted for 50% of the variance in prenatal care use. The results affirm the complexity of prenatal care participation behavior among low-income women and the dominant influence of psychosocial factors. Comprehensive, coordinated and multidisciplinary outreach and services which address psychosocial and structural barriers are needed to improve prenatal care for low-income women.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

Evolution and facial action in reflex, social motive, and paralanguage.

Based upon current evolutionary theory and recent laboratory and field data, this paper introduces a behavioral-ecology view of human facial displays that contrasts with previous views of faces as innate, prototypic, "iconic" expressions of fundamental emotions. First, I detail the criteria for establishing genetic and epigenetic contributions to facial behavior. Under these criteria, cross-cultural communality in canonical facial displays implies neither their genetic control nor their fundamental relation to emotion. New findings reestablish phylogenetic continuity by showing that human facial displays and vigilance for them, like their nonhuman counterparts, coevolve in the service of social motives; faces issued in solitude typically reflect imaginary or implicit interaction. Two evolutionary trends are probably involved in shaping facial actions--emancipation of reflexes, and automatization of instrumental acts. Modern conceptions of genetic and cultural evolution, and knowledge about animal signaling, suggest new hypotheses regarding the origins and functions of facial displays. In so doing, they clarify how facial displays relate to reflexion, motive and intention, emotion and psychophysiology, and language and paralanguage.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Effects of lipopolysaccharide on food-motivated behavior in the rat are not blocked by an interleukin-1 receptor antagonist.

To investigate the role of interleukin-1 (IL-1) in the decrease in food-motivated behavior after peripheral administration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), rats trained to press a lever for food on a fixed ratio 10 schedule were pre-treated with a recombinant human IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra). This endogenous cytokine has been shown to block most of the inflammatory and immune effects of IL-1 both in vitro and in vivo. Intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of LPS (400 micrograms/kg) decreased operant responding for food to 30-60% of baseline for 1-4 h. Response rates gradually recovered, but were still below control levels 8 and 24 h post-injection. Neither i.p. (8 mg/kg) nor intracerebroventricular (288 micrograms/kg) administration of IL-1ra blocked the effects of peripherally administered LPS on food-motivated behavior. These results suggest that the effects of LPS on this behavior are not mediated by the release of IL-1.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Motivational subtypes in an inpatient sample of substance abusers.

Motivational subgroups in a sample of inpatient substance abusers were identified to facilitate future development of treatment interventions aimed at enhancing compliance and involvement. The modified Stages of Change Readiness and Treatment Eagerness Scales from 165 subjects were subject to factor and cluster analyses. Results suggest the instrument assesses three dimensions: determination, action, and contemplation. Using these dimensions, three subgroups were identified: Uninvolved, Ambivalent, and Active. There were no differences on demographic or background variables or Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory 2 (MMPI-2) profiles. The Uninvolved group scored significantly lower than the other two groups on measures of alcohol use and abuse. The Ambivalent and Active groups did not differ on any of the measures of alcohol use and abuse. The Ambivalent group demonstrated a high level of conflict and inaction. The Active group appeared to be aware of their dependence and were ready to change their behavior. The results have implications for treatment matching and enhancing treatment motivation.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Measuring readiness and motivation to quit smoking among women in public health clinics.

We conducted a pilot test of an instrument to assess stage of readiness and level of motivation to change smoking behavior among 495 women smokers in public health clinics. The stages of readiness were based on those proposed by Prochaska and DiClemente but with finer discrimination within the precontemplation stage, where a substantial minority (41%) of the target smokers were situated. Subdividing this earliest group, we found that 8% of the total sample planned no change in smoking ever; 8% were seriously thinking of cutting down; and 25% were seriously thinking of quitting but not within 6 months. Scales in the questionnaire included general motivation to change smoking behavior and confidence in one's ability to do so. The women's scores differed on these scales and on action toward quitting across the five stages of readiness, except that the lowest two groups did not differ on confidence. Pregnancy enhanced readiness to quit. The instrument accommodates the brevity and low literacy requirements for use in these applied settings and is suitable for use in either self-administered questionnaire or interview format.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Motivational interviewing: research, practice, and puzzles.

Motivational interviewing is a directive client-centered counseling approach for initiating behavior change by helping clients to resolve ambivalence. Background research that led to its development is reviewed, along with current evidence for its efficacy in reducing alcohol and other drug abuse. Elements of therapeutic style are briefly discussed. Although current evidence generally supports the effectiveness of motivational interviewing, the underlying reasons and mechanisms for change pose unsolved puzzles.

Alcoholism↗
PubMed1985

Some career aspects of alcoholics not motivated to take part in therapy 6 months after detoxification.

Two groups of alcoholics not motivated to take part in therapy 6 months after detoxification are differentiated using various aspects of their career. The 'career' covers the development of alcoholism including drinking, social and psychological characteristics not necessarily resulting from alcohol abuse. The study is an explorative one. The results suggest that the career is a useful dimension for distinguishing groups of alcoholics who are not motivated towards therapeutic intervention.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Rehabilitation: an 'everyday' motivation model.

In this article a model is presented to deal with motivational problems of rehabilitation patients. The problem of motivation is not covered yet in relevant psychological disciplines like rehabilitation psychology, neuropsychology and health psychology. An important source of the model is cognitive psychology. Applications are presented in the communication between rehabilitation workers and the patient. The model can be put into practice in a wide range of patients with physical and/or cerebral handicaps.

Humans↗
PubMed1995

In search of counterurbanisation: some evidence from Devon on the relationship between patterns of migration and motivation.

"The term counterurbanisation is frequently used to describe the redistribution of a population away from major cities and metropolitan areas and towards more rural areas. The widespread nature of this phenomenon has attracted much attention, yet the concept remains relatively under-developed, and even the basic definition lacks rigour. It is not surprising, therefore, that there has been a lack of cumulative evidence as to the extent of the process and little agreement as to its significance. In essence, ambiguity surrounds the types of movement that should be admitted, the necessary motives for movement and the appropriate measures for both. This paper offers some preliminary suggestions for a more structured approach to the problem. It draws on original survey data from Devon [England], a county which has experienced substantial net in-migration, both to examine the contribution of three alternative definitions of counterurbanisation and to consider how these issues relate to motivation."

Behavior↗