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PubMed2004

Dental Injuries in Intermediate and High School Athletes: A 15-Year Study at Punahou School.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the rate, type, and severity of dental injuries recorded for intermediate and high school interscholastic athletic participants. DESIGN AND SETTING: A longitudinal study (1988-2003) of intermediate and high school athletes utilizing the same certified athletic trainers to evaluate and record all injury data. SUBJECTS: Sports participation included 123 teams in 19 female, 18 male, and 2 coed sports. Of 2445 Punahou School intermediate and high school students, on average, 1340 students (623 females, 717 males) annually participated in interscholastic athletics. MEASUREMENTS: Dental injuries were defined as injuries to the jaw, teeth, and oral soft tissue (lip, mouth, cheek, and tongue). Soft tissue injuries requiring physician or dentist referral were recorded. Other soft tissue injuries were treated as skin abrasions and were not recorded. Actual days lost from activity were recorded. The estimated injury rate was determined (injuries/1000 athlete-sessions). Mouth-guard use was recorded. RESULTS: During the 15-year study, 19 492 injuries were reported, with 56 (0.2%) recorded as dental injuries (23 tooth, 20 jaw, and 13 soft tissue). Injury rates were highest for girls' wrestling (0.243, confidence interval = 0-2.3), boys' judo (0.189, confidence interval = 0-3.6), and boys' soccer (0.127, confidence interval = 0.4-1.4). The football injury rate was 0.029 (confidence interval = 0.04-0.29), with no tooth injuries. CONCLUSIONS: The incidence and injury rate of dental injuries was extremely low for all reported sports. A universal definition of dental injuries must be established to facilitate injury data collection and analysis.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1992

Depression and chronic fatigue in athletes.

For the most part, the competitive athlete is a well-adjusted individual who demonstrates considerable vigor and well-being, as well as less depression, anxiety, and fatigue than nonathletic counterparts. The well-trained athlete, however, may also have a personality that is somewhat rigid, strongly goal oriented, and perfectionist. It is not unrealistic to expect that when confronted with diminished performance or success, such an athlete may be compelled to drive himself or herself harder to succeed. Such behavior typically leads to the phenomenon of overtraining, which can express itself in the form of chronic fatigue and depression. There are a number of other organic causes of chronic fatigue and depression, however, which must be excluded by careful evaluation and appropriate diagnostic testing. Although the evaluation of the athlete who presents with chronic fatigue and depression can be somewhat complex, a diagnostic framework has been outlined here to assist the clinician in the assessment of an athlete who presents with such complaints.

Depression↗
PubMed2005

Coagulation parameters in senior athletes practicing endurance sporting activity.

AIM: Physical activity is practiced more and more by middle-aged people. We studied the behavior of the coagulation system before and after near-maximum, specific and standardized exercise tests in 2 groups of senior athletes. METHODS: The subjects of the study were 2 groups of athletes over 40 years of age (ranging 41 to 60 years): 10 rowers and 10 marathon runners. The data were compared with 10 controls (ranging in age from 40 to 71 years) tested on the cycle ergometer. The first group (rowers) was tested on a rowing machine; the second group (marathon runners) performed a maximal exercise on the treadmill. All subjects were tested to a maximal level of cardiovascular and muscular exertion and cardiac and respiratory parameters were monitored. The following coagulation tests were performed before and after maximal exercise: prothrombin time (PT), partial activated thromboplastin time (PTT), fibrinogen (FBG), antithrombin III (ATIII), protein C (PC), protein S (PS), prothrombin fragment 1+2 (F1+2), tissue activator of plasminogen (t-PA) and its inhibitor (PAI). All subjects performed a complete maximal specific test. RESULTS: The results showed all individuals produced a significant increase of FBG, PT and PTT activities and a lowering trend for PC and PS inhibitors after maximal exercise testing. ATIII levels increased significantly in trained subjects. After the test, data regarding fibrinolysis showed higher t-PA levels in athletes as compared with controls. PAI levels indicated a more marked decrease in athletes. The F1+2 showed a moderate but significant increase in the control group. CONCLUSIONS: Coagulative tests showed an increase in procoagulant and fibrinolysis parameters in all the groups but the increased fibrinolytic activity in trained athletes indicates a protective factor and greater vascular efficiency. The results demonstrate that sporting activity practiced by middle-aged people accelerates fibrinolytic activity in conditioned subjects. In conclusion, physical activity benefits the coagulation system particularly as regards fibrinolysis.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

Weight Cycling Practices and Long-term Health Conditions in a Sample of Former Wrestlers and Other Collegiate Athletes.

Weight cycling (repeated episodes of weight loss and regain) has been shown to reduce the resting metabolic rate in some chronic dieters. Concerns have been raised that wrestlers' repeated patterns of weight loss and gain may reduce metabolic rates and increase long-term health risks. We conducted this study to assess previous weight loss practices, current body weight, and incidence of chronic disease in a sample of male athletes who earned athletic letters in intercollegiate sports at the University of Wisconsin-Madison between 1950 and 1988. Survey questionnaires were mailed to 79 ex-wrestlers and 153 nonwrestling athletes, with responses from 60 wrestlers (76%) and 104 nonwrestlers (68%). We found no significant differences in weight gained after graduation (10.2 pounds for wrestlers and 8.6 pounds for nonwrestling athletes), current exercise practices, incidence of chronic disease, prevalence of obesity, and current dieting rates in this sample of former college athletes. Collegiate wrestlers gained an average of 16 pounds during the off-season. Most wrestlers reported that they lost between 3 and 11 pounds per match and that they used a combination of five or more weight loss techniques. Most frequently reported techniques included increasing exercise, restricting food, exercising in a hot environment, using a steam room or sauna, restricting fluids, and exercising in a rubber or plastic suit. Fewer wrestlers than nonwrestlers reported that they smoked tobacco. The health effects of changes in proportions of fat-free body mass after weight cycling were not addressed in this survey. The hypothesis that numerous cycles of weight loss and regain among wrestlers may result in long-term weight gain and/or increased risk of chronic disease was not supported by the results of this survey.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1994

Anabolic steroid use in the adolescent athlete.

Recent surveys indicate that the use of androgenic-anabolic steroids (anabolic steroids) is prevalent among adolescent athletes, particularly those in high school. The cost of clinical drug testing makes it impractical to use random testing to identify users of these ergogenic aids. The athletic trainer is often in a position to identify anabolic steroid users if he/she knows the clinical signs and symptoms. In this article, we briefly discuss the history of anabolic steroid use, how they work, their potentially dangerous side effects, evidence of increased use by adolescent athletes, and a list of clinical signs and symptoms. Finally, we suggest strategies that may help athletic trainers counsel athletes about anabolic steroid use.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1994

1992 entry-level athletic trainer salaries.

The purpose of this study was to examine the salaries for entry-level positions in athletic training during the year 1992. An entry-level position was defined as an athletic trainer, certified by the National Athletic Trainers' Association (NATA), with no full-time paid employment experience. According to the "Placement Vacancy Notice" published by the NATA, there were 234 entry-level vacancies in the hospital/clinic, 135 with the college/university, and 58 at the high school setting. A survey was designed and mailed to the location of each of these 427 entry-level positions. Distribution of responses was 78 (33%), 55 (41%), and 23 (40%) for hospital/clinic, college/university, and high school, respectively. Overall, beginning salaries for entry-level athletic training positions were $23,108 (+/- $3,309) for a bachelor's degree and $25,223 (+/- $3, 794) for a master's degree. A stipend ($4,219 +/- $1,458) was included in most of the high school positions. Term of contract for high school was usually 10 months (10.2 +/- 0.8 months), hospital/clinic was 12 months (11.9 +/- 0.6 months), while the college/university varied from 9 to 12 months (10.8 +/- 1.3 months). Further studies are recommended to establish salary norms and trends for entry-level positions so that athletic trainers will understand what monetary compensation is expected for their services.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1994

Job marketability survey for athletic trainers in selected midwestern States.

This study was conducted to determine job availability for athletic trainers in school and/or clinic settings in western Kansas, western Nebraska, western Oklahoma, and eastern Colorado. A survey was sent to 109 physical therapy (PT) clinics and 194 public schools to determine the major factors associated with job marketability. Of the 194 questionnaires mailed to the public schools, 119 were returned for a 61% response rate. Of the 109 questionnaires mailed to PT clinics, 57 were returned for a 52% response rate. Very few school districts (13%) hired their own trainer due to financial restrictions; therefore, the National Athletic Trainers' Association (NATA) athletic trainer would increase his/her likelihood of being hired if he/she was also teacher-certified. Most of the clinics responding would hire an NATA-certified athletic trainer if that individual was also licensed as a physical therapist, whereby, the trainer without PT licensure could be used for outreach programs for the local high schools. Essential factors identified by both the public school and clinic personnel for increasing the marketability of athletic trainers were: 1) NATA certification, 2) acquisition of an additional certification such as a teaching endorsement or a PT degree, and 3) willingness to provide services jointly to the schools and/or clinic with either being the primary hiring agent.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1994

Athletic trainers can impact health promotion and disease prevention.

With increasing numbers of athletic trainers working in nontraditional settings and the recognition of athletic trainers as allied health professionals, it is important that athletic trainers be knowledgeable about the health risks facing the nation in the 90s. Healthy People 2000: National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives contains 300 health objectives for the nation for the year 2000. Athletic trainers have a unique opportunity to assist other health professionals in implementing these health objectives and improving the quality of life of the citizens of the United States. In this article, I present a sample of the 300 health objectives for the nation and make suggestions regarding how athletic trainers can assist in the achievement and implementation of the objectives.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1995

Therapeutic imagery and athletic injuries.

The rehabilitation process of an injured athlete can be accelerated if clinicians will use an imagery model in conjunction with existing therapeutic care. There is sufficient evidence to suggest a positive relationship between imagery and the healing process. Thus, we provide athletic trainers and practicing clinicians with basic information relating to the use of imagery in rehabilitation. Specifically, a sample imagery program is discussed incorporating the following prescribed steps: introducing imagery to the athlete, evaluating the athlete's imaging ability, assisting the athlete in developing basic imagery skills, and providing tips on the adjunctive use of imagery in a rehabilitation program.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1995

Functional plyometric exercises for the throwing athlete.

In this article we provide athletic health care professionals with a variety of functional strengthening exercises to use in improving the muscular strength of the throwing athlete's shoulder. Upper extremity functional plyometric exercise in sport-specific patterns can be an important component of a throwing athlete's rehabilitation. We discuss several plyometric exercises, using the Inertial Exercise System, the Plyo-ball, and the Theraband. Proper use of these exercises can facilitate a safe and progressive rehabilitation program for the injured, throwing athlete. After the athlete has successfully completed the functional plyometric exercises, a throwing progression can be initiated.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1996

1994 entry-level athletic training salaries.

In this study, I examined salaries for entry-level positions in athletic training during the year 1994. An entry-level position was defined as a position to be filled with an athletic trainer certified by the NATA, with no full-time paid employment experience. According to the "Placement Vacancy Notice" (NATA, Dallas, TX) and "BYLINE" (Athletic Trainer Services, Inc, Mt Pleasant, MI), there were 432 entry-level vacancies in hospital/clinics, college/universities, and high school settings. A total of 271 surveys (63%) were returned. Overall, beginning salaries for entry-level athletic training positions were $23,228 (+/-$3,177) for a bachelor's degree and $25,362 (+/-$3,883) for a master's degree. A stipend ($4,216 +/- $2,039) was included in 86% of the high school positions. The term of contract for high school was usually a 10-month position (10.0 +/- .9 months), hospital/clinic, 12-months (11.7 +/- .7 months), while the college/university varied from 9 to 12 months (10.5 +/- 1.2 months). Also included in the study was fringe benefit information: pension (other than Social Security), life, medical, dental, and vision insurance. Continued studies are recommended to establish salary norms and trends for entry-level positions so that athletic trainers will understand what monetary compensation to expect for their services.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1996

Effect of mild head injury on postural stability in athletes.

OBJECTIVE: Athletic trainers and team physicians are often faced with the dilemma of when to return athletes to participation following mild head injury. Unfortunately, clinicians rarely have quantitative information on which to base their decisions. The purpose of this investigation was to identify postural stability changes in athletes with acute mild head injury. DESIGN AND SETTING: High school and college male athletes were prescreened for postural stability before the start of their season. Subjects suffering injury during the season returned for testing on days 1, 3, 5, and 10 following injury, and 1 month postseason. Control subjects were selected for comparisons. SUBJECTS: Ten prescreened subjects (age = 17.4 +/- 2.2 yr; ht = 183.8 + 8.1 cm; wt = 87.7 + 17.3 kg) returned for testing following an injury. Ten matched control subjects (age = 18.6 +/- 2.6 yr; ht = 185.7 +/- 6.7 cm; wt = 84.5 +/- 19.5 kg) were selected for comparisons. Additionally, nine subjects (eight male and one female) (age = 19.9 +/- 4.2 yr; ht = 182.3 + 10.9 cm; wt = 89.6 +/- 25.2 kg) who had sustained a mild head injury from other varsity sports teams were recruited. Nine matched controls (age = 22.1 +/- 3.3 yr; ht = 181.0 +/- 9.9 cm; wt = 84.9 +/- 25.6 kg) were again utilized. MEASUREMENTS: Sway index and center of balance were measured using the Chattecx Balance System during three eye conditions and three surface conditions for all subjects. RESULTS: Repeated measures analyses of variance (ANOVA) for each prescreened subject's sway index revealed significant differences between injured subjects and control subjects on day 1 postinjury as compared with the prescreening and/or subsequent tests. The analysis for sway index and center of balance inclusive of all 19 subjects with mild head injury and all 19 control subjects demonstrated increased postural sway compared with control subjects on day 1 postinjury during all plafform conditions, and on day 3 during the foam platform condition. The analysis for center of balance using the same subjects revealed that injured subjects maintained their center of balance farther away on day 1 postinjury compared with subsequent tests (p < .05). CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that computerized dynamic posturography is a useful tool in objectively assessing postural stability in subjects with mild head injuries. Subjects with mild head injury appear to demonstrate impaired postural stability 1 to 3 days following injury. This information should aid clinicians in determining when an athlete can safely return to participation.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1998

The Use of Nonprescription Weight Loss Products Among Female Basketball, Softball, and Volleyball Athletes from NCAA Division I Institutions: Issues and Concerns.

OBJECTIVE: To identify and describe the use of nonprescription weight loss products among female basketball, softball, and volleyball players from NCAA Division I institutions and to address health and sports performance issues concerning the use of weight loss products by female athletes. DESIGN AND SETTING: Mailed self-reporting questionnaire, sample of convenience. The Department of Physical Education at the University of South Carolina sponsored this study. SUBJECTS: The researchers sent 371 questionnaires to NCAA Division I athletic trainers of ten basketball teams, ten softball teams, and eleven volleyball teams. The recipients returned all of the questionnaires. Of the subjects, 106 played basketball, 138 played softball, and 127 played volleyball. MEASUREMENTS: A survey consisting of nine questions related to the use of weight loss products by NCAA Division I female athletes. RESULTS: Approximately 29% of the subjects reported using nonprescription weight loss products, which included general weight-reducing products, diuretics, and laxatives. More volleyball players (71%) used all types of these products than did softball (32%) or basketball (11.3%) players. More white athletes (32.3%) reported using the products than did African American athletes (6.7%). More volleyball players (23.6%) used diuretics than did softball (3.6%) or basketball (1.0%) players. Laxative use was greatest among volleyball players (18.8%), followed by basketball (1.8%) and softball (2.9%) players. Subjects typically reported purchasing nonprescription weight loss products over the counter (96.4%). The mean age of initial use was 16.2 years. Frequency of use increased during the out-of-sport season. The number one reason for using nonprescription weight loss products was for appearance enhancement (79.6%). CONCLUSIONS: Based upon the results of this study, the use of nonprescription weight loss products is particularly common among volleyball players, but softball and basketball players also use them. Most subjects used these products during the out-of-sport season; therefore, information and intervention programs should target out-of-season use patterns. These programs should address the effects weight loss products have on sports performance and general health and should address issues relating to physical appearance.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2000

A classification system for the assessment of lumbar pain in athletes.

OBJECTIVE: To present a lumbar pain classification system and its rationale as an alternative to pathology-based diagnosis for athletes. BACKGROUND: Lumbar pain is a common problem in both athletes and in the general population. Although common, the etiology of lumbar pain cannot be identified in 80% to 90% of patients. Lumbar injuries are often evaluated using a pathology-based model. This approach attempts to pinpoint the cause of the pain, making lumbar pain evaluation difficult. DESCRIPTION: We developed a 4-level classification system that groups athletes based on signs and symptoms. It does not necessarily attempt to determine the cause of pain. We use this classification system for referral, participation, and rehabilitation decisions. CLINICAL TECHNIQUE: This assessment technique eliminates much of the ambiguity associated with lumbar pain. Athletic trainers can use this technique on all athletes presenting with lumbar symptoms.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2003

Multiculturalism and athletic training education: implications for educational and professional progress.

OBJECTIVE: To introduce athletic training educators and practicing professionals to the pedagogic concept and professional benefits that multicultural education, awareness, and training might provide if implemented in athletic training education. DATA SOURCES: I reviewed textbook chapters and articles used in the course of my doctoral studies and searched the archives of Diversity Digest and Academic Medicine for the years 1998 to 2002 with the key words multiculturalism, diversity, cultural competence, education, and learning. I obtained additional information by cross-referencing pertinent articles. DATA SYNTHESIS: I present a rational argument for the inclusion of a critical pedagogy into the field of athletic training education. I outline the infrastructure in the professional field of athletic training, review some of the literature on critical multicultural theory and pedagogy, and examine some of the potential cognitive and intellectual implications of diversity and multicultural education. CONCLUSIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS: Future work in this area should focus on various and creative strategies for implementing a multicultural agenda in athletic training curricula and on the analysis of the associated benefits and outcomes of such educational strategies.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2006

Preferred teaching and testing methods of athletic training students and program directors and the relationship to styles.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was (1) to investigate differences between athletic training students' and program directors' preferences for teaching and testing methods and (2) to investigate the relationship between style and preferred teaching and testing methods using the Gregorc Style Delineator (GSD) and the Preferred Teaching and Testing Method Inventory (PTTMI). PARTICIPANTS: We cluster sampled 200 undergraduate students (100% return; 68 men, 132 women; mean age, 20.12 +/- 2.02 yrs) and simple random sampled 100 program directors (43% return; 22 men, 21 women; mean age, 40.05 +/- 9.30 yrs) from Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs-accredited athletic training education programs. DESIGN AND MEASUREMENT: We used a correlational research design to compare the preferred teaching and testing methods of undergraduate students and program directors. All subjects completed a demographic survey, the GSD, and the PTTMI. Our analyses included two separate 2 (role: student and program director) x 8 (method: teaching or testing techniques) and two separate 4 (style: concrete sequential, abstract sequential, abstract random, concrete random) x 8 (method: teaching and testing techniques) mixed-model analyses of variance. RESULTS: We found that athletic training students and program directors had significantly different preferences for teaching (p < 0.01) and testing (p < 0.01) methods, respectively. No significant relationships were revealed between athletic training students' and program directors' Mind Style typologies and their preferences for teaching or testing method. CONCLUSIONS: We recommend that athletic training and allied health educators consider implementing pedagogy that accentuates students' styles and consider self and students' preferences for preferred teaching and testing methods as time and topic permit.

Administrative Personnel↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Stylistic learning differences between undergraduate athletic training students and educators: Gregorc mind styles.

CONTEXT: Learning theory and pedagogic research are unfamiliar to many educators trained in the sciences. Athletic training educators must learn to appreciate the theoretic and practical value of pedagogic research, including learning styles. OBJECTIVE: To extend the learning styles research in athletic training by introducing the Mind Styles model and Gregorc Style Delineator instrument to investigate students' and program directors' baseline style preferences and to study the effects of sex, education level, and academic role on mean composite Gregorc Style Delineator scores. DESIGN: Correlational research design. SETTING: Instruments were mailed to program directors and administered in classroom settings. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Ten of 10 athletic training programs accredited by the Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs formed sample 1, with 200 undergraduate athletic training students (68 men, 132 women, age = 20.12 +/- 2.02 years). A total of 43 program directors (22 men, 21 women, age = 40.05 +/- 9.30 years) created sample 2. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): We used the Gregorc Style Delineator to measure participants' perceptual and ordering abilities, combining them in a quaternary design to create mean composite scores for the Concrete Sequential (CS), Abstract Sequential (AS), Abstract Random (AR), and Concrete Random (CR) Mind Styles subscales. We also noted each subject's sex, education level, and academic role. RESULTS: We obtained a response rate of 100% of undergraduates and 43% of program directors. The CS style was preferred by 44.5% (n = 89) of students and 58.1% (n = 25) of program directors. Program directors preferred the CS style more (P < .001) and the AS and AR styles less (P < .001) than predicted by chi(2) testing. Students preferred the CS style more (P < .001) and the AS style less (P < .001) than expected also. Men students preferred the AS style more (P < .01) and the AR style less (P < .01) than women students. Students by chi2 testing were also less likely to prefer the CS style (P < .01) and more likely to prefer the AR style (P < .001) than program directors. No significant main effect was noted for education level (P = .310) or the interaction (P = .108). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings add 2 unique elements to the athletic training literature by extending the investigation of styles to an original model (Mind Styles) and the effect of academic role on style. Program directors should strongly consider sex and academic role style differences when designing and implementing pedagogic methods.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2006

[Electrical acupoint stimulation increases athletes' rapid strength].

OBJECTIVE: To search for a stimulation method for increasing athletes' performance. METHODS: One hundred and fifty athletes were randomly divided into a trial group and a control group, 75 athletes in each group. Acupoints were stimulated with audio frequency pulse modulated wave and multi-blind method were used to investigate effects of the electric stimulation of acupoints on 30-meter running, standing long jumping and Cybex isokinetic testing index. RESULTS: The acupoint electric stimulation method could significantly increase athlete's performance (P < 0.05), and the biomechanical indexes, maximal peak moment of force (P < 0.05), force moment accelerating energy (P < 0.05) and average power (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Electrical acupoint stimulation can enhance athlete's rapid strength.

Acupuncture Points↗